PSYC 305

• Personality: Is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that is organized and relatively enduring and that influences interactions with, and adaptations to, the environment (including intrapsychic, physical, and social environment)
• Personality does not include (but still interacts with these things): specific attitudes, like, and dislikes; specific morals, values, and beliefs; abilities (cognitive or otherwise); physical characteristics; social categories
• Levels of personality analysis: 1: human nature (broadest category, how we are like all others); 2. Individual and Group differences (How we are like some others); 3. Individual uniqueness (How we are like no others)
• Human natures: how we are like all others; traits and mechanisms of personality that are typical of our species and possessed by nearly everyone; Example: our prosocial tendencies (we are all motivated to engage in and maintain social relationships)
• Individual and Group differences: how we are like some others; individual differences refer to ways in which each person is like some other people (ex, I'm a an introvert); Group differences refer to ways in which the people of one group differ from people in another group (ex Comparing Canada and US on individualism and self-enhancement, although Canada is fairly high, the US is higher on both)
• Individual Uniqueness: How we are like no others; refers to the fact that every individual has personal and unique qualities not shared by any other person in the world; Uniqueness does exist in the sum of our traits and mechanisms; in their combination and interactions; and in our stories; the value of our differences
• Personality Assessment: 1. Descriptive Research (used to describe personality; ex what is a person's level of extraversion); 2. Explanatory Research (used to to discover relationships between traits or between personality and other phenomena; ex. Is extraversion related to shyness)
• Descriptive Research: Self reports (surveys, S-Data); Observer-Reports (O-Data); Test-Data (T-Data); life history/life-outcome Data (L-Data); Common concerns: reliability, validity, and generalizability
• Explanatory Research: Experimental Methods: True experiments (manipulation of independent variable; random assignment) & quasi-experiments (incomplete randomization); Correlational Studies: non-experimental methods to identify association; cross-sectional, longitudinal
• Explanatory Research: when we say that a relationship or result is significant this means that the observation (relationship, difference, ect..) is likely caused by something other than random chance
• Replication: the process of repeating a study in a different population/context, is key to gaining confidence in findings; Meta-analysis: the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies (data are standardized across studies, which are chosen based on strict inclusion criteria, and compared/summarized; when the effect size of a particular relationship is consistent across studies, we gain confidence in the observation)
• Most published psychological research in top academic journals is based on samples drawn entirely from WEIRD samples (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic); Unlike other scientific disciplines, around 70% of all psychology citations come from the United States (compared to 37% for chemistry for example)
• Case studies: in depth examination of the life of one person; is descriptive, exploratory, or explanatory in nature
• What are traits: the basic building blocks of personality; universal dimensions with individual differences; almost any adjective (or sometimes noun) that described the way some people are and others are not; internal causal properties versus descriptive summaries of behaviour
• Which traits are most important: 1. lexical approach (all important individual differences have become encoded within language over time); 2. Statistical approach (based on covariance); 3. Theoretical approach (determines which variables or traits are important to study)
• Lexical hypothesis: all important individual differences have become encoded within language over time (because traits are important for communication); two criteria for identifying important traits: 1. synonym frequency (there should be many words for it); 2. Cross-cultural universality (people everywhere will have a word(s) for it)
• Statistical Approach: starts with a large, diverse pool of personality items; most researcher first use the lexical approach to come up with a pool of items, then apply statistical methods in order to organize and categorize items based on their covariance; factor analysis: primary statistical method used (identifies groups of items that covary or "go together" but tend not to covary with other groups of items; reveals underlying factors
• Theoretical approach: Starts with a theoretical framework, which determines which variables or traits are important to study (for ex. Freud's personality types based on psychosexual fixations during childhood development; or key personality traits or self-actualizers based on the work of Maslow)
• Trait taxonomies: 1. Eysenck's hierarchical model of personality 2. Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory 3. Wiggins interpersonal circumplex 4. Five-factor model of personality (Big 5) 5. HEXACO model of personality
• Hierarchical model of personality: criteria for personality traits: 1) must be heritable and 2) must have psychophysiological foundation; proposed three broad traits: extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism; each consists of narrow traits which consists of habitual actions which consist of specific actions
• Hierarchical model: Extraversion: sociable, lively, active, assertive, carefree, dominant, sensation-seeking, venturesome, surgent (tending towards positive affect); psychophysiology: introverts have higher cortical and nervous system arousal to moderate-to-high levels of stimuation
• Hierarchical model: Neuroticism: anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, shy, moody, emotional, low self-esteem, guilt-feelings; psychophysiology: is associated with greater reactivity (physiological and psychological) to stress and negative stimuli
• Hierarchical model: Psychoticism: aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, unemphatic, creative (not a reliable correlation), tough-minded, antisocial (socially disruptive causing harm to and/or violating the rights of others); psychophysiology: associated with higher testosterone (explaining the aggression and impulsivity) and lower monoamine oxidase (means higher levels of neurotransmitters like dopamine so can explain why they seek out more stimulation)
• Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory: based on brain research with animals, Gray proposed a model of human personality involving two hypothesized biological systems in the brain: 1. one said to be responsive to reward and 2. one responsive to punishment; according to Gray, people differ from each other in relative sensitivity of each of these systems; those more sensitive to reward were said to be impulsive and those more sensitive to punishment were said to be anxious
• Gray's revised theory: Behavioural activation system (BAS): brain system responsive to reward, motivates approach behaviour; high BA = novelty-seeking, positive emotion, extraversion
• Gray's Revised theory: Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS): brain system responsive to negative (threatening/punishing) stimuli; mediates the emotion of fear; high FFFS = fear-proneness, avoidance behaviours, phobias
• Gray's revised theory: Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS): brain system involved in resolving conflict (where we are unsure on how to respond, have the possibility of positive or negative outcomes); characterized by anxiety and rumination in order to assess risk; high BIS = risk aversion, neuroticism
• The interpersonal circumplex: Primarily concerned with interpersonal traits; interactions between people involving social exchanges; Social exchange is defined by 2 resources 1) love (emotional component, also known as communion) 2) status (social component, also known as agency)
• The interpersonal Circumplex: Gregarious-extraverted: high on love, high on status; Unassuming-Ingenuous: high on love, low on status; Aloof-introverted: low on love, low on status; Arrogant-calculating: low on love, high on status
• Agency/Communion: describe 2 primary modes of existence or motives of behaviour; Agency: competence, assertiveness; refers to existence of an organism as an individual, to "getting ahead," individual goal pursuit; Communion: warmth, morality; refers to participation of an individual in a larger organism, to "getting along" and forming bonds
• The Five-Factor Model: Leading personality taxonomy today; 5 broad traits of factors (based on lexical & statistical approaches): 1. Extraversion (surgency: tendency to experience positive emotion) 2. Neuorticism (Emotional stability) 3. Conscientiousness (Dependability) 4. Agreeableness 5. Openness to Experiences (intellect, culture)
• The five-factor model has been independently replicated: in numerous studies using English language trait words as items; in many countries and cultures (both Western and Non-Western); in many different languages; using different item formats; in every decade since 1949
• Neuroticism: individuals high in this are prone to negative emotions (like anxiety, depression, anger), rather than being emotionally resilient: narrow traits: Anxiety (tend to worry about thing); Depression (often feel down and depressed); Self-Consciousness (easily intimidated, embarrassed); Vulnerability (panic easily, emotionally reactive); Anger/hostility (gets frustrated easily); Impulsiveness (unable to resist temptations)
• Extraversion: individuals high in this are assertive and sociable, rather than quiet and reserved; They enjoy engaging with the external world; Narrow traits: gregariousness (enjoy company, big crowds); warmth (genuinely like others, acts positively to others); Positive emotions (happy, enthusiastic, optimistic); activity level (active, busy, energetic): Assertiveness (like to take charge, lead others)
• Openness to experiences: individuals high in this have a broad range of interests, are sensitive to art and beauty, and prefer novelty to routine; Narrow traits: fantasy (have a vivid imagination, fantasy-prone); ideas (intellectual, enjoy exploring ideas and solving problems); Aesthetics (appreciate art, drawn to aesthetics); Actions (prefer variety, open to new ways of doing things); Feelings (open to new feelings and experiences); Values (open minded values, open to changing, tend to vote liberal)
• Agreeableness: people high in this are cooperative and polite, rather than antagonistic and rude:; Narrow traits: Trust in others (believe others' intentions are positive); Altruism (selfless, generous, self-sacrificing); Tender-mindedness (sensitive to others and sympathetic); Compliance (cooperative, avoid conflict); modesty (humble, not arrogant); Straightforwardness (honest, direct, easy to satisfy)
• Conscientiousness: people high in this are task focused and orderly, rather than distractible and disorganized; narrow traits: competence (confident in ability); Self-discipline (persist at tasks until completed); Achievement striving (work hard to achieve excellence); Order (prefer order, structure, and organization); Dutifulness (follow through with responsibilities); Deliberation (think things through before acting)
• In leading models of personality traits are organized hierarchically; we can most accurately predict outcomes by looking at narrow traits rather than at the broad level or specific behaviours, states, & experiences
• The "High Five": a five factor model of positive characteristics: 1. Erudition: wise, visionary, cultured; high openness. 2. Peace: patient, tolerant; low neuroticism 3. Cheerfulness: pleasant, funny; high extraversion. 4. Honesty: loyal, reliable, truthful; high agreeableness. 5. Tenacity – dedicated, persistent; high conscientiousness. These five traits are associated with social desirability
• The HEXACO model: a six-factor structure of personality that introduces the honesty-humility factor to the big five; but for emotionality it include sentimentality and dependence and for agreeableness it includes low anger, not quick to temper instead of being related to emotionality