Biology

• The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains the cell's genetic material.
• homeostatis- regulation, internal stability both found in nervous and endocrine system
• SKELETAL SYSTEM

  • Body’s support structure and protection.
• • musculoskeletal system (the muscular and skeletal systems work together to support and move the body.)
• Major function of Skeletal System

  • Support, Protection, Movement, Storage and Blood Cell Production
• 1. Support

  • The bones and cartilages provide the framework to maintain the body shape.
• 1. Protection

  • It protects the internal organs (skull, rib cage, lungs, spinal cord etc.)
• 1. Movement

  • Wider range of body movements because of coordinated action of skeletal system.
• 1. Storage

  • Bones are reservoir of minerals like phosphorus and calcium. It plays an important role in calcium metabolism.
• 1. Blood cell protection

  • The bone marrow is a site of hematopoiesis where the formation of blood cells takes place.
  • Red bone marrow, which reduces blood cells and platelets.
• • The bone marrow is a site of hematopoiesis where the formation of blood cells takes place.
• Extracellular Matrix

  • Tissue development (e.g. wound healing)

  It contains collagen, proteoglycan and water and minerals in the matrix to determine the characteristics of connective tissues.
• • Collagen is the most abundant protein in the ECM and support resident cells.
• • Proteoglycan are large molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached to core proteins.
• • Most of the minerals in bones is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatite.
• The bone, cartilage, tendons (muscle-bone), and ligaments (bones-bones) are all connective tissues.
• tendons (muscle-bone)
• ligaments (bones-bones)
• 4 Categories of Bones: Long Bones, Short Bones, Flat Bones, and Irregular Bones
• Long Bones

  Are longer than they are wide (e.g. Humerus, Femur, Fibula, Tibia
• Short Bones

  • Cube and contain mostly spongy bone (e.g. Carpal bone(wrist) and, Tarsal bone (ankle)
• 1. Flat bones

  • Flat shape (e.g. skull, ribs, sternum, scapulate)
• 1. Irregular bones

  • Fairly complex shape which protect internal organs (e.g. vertebrae, sacrum, ear ossicles)
• • If the blood pressure is high it produces insulin, which came from the pancreas and helps balance the sugar (carry down).
• • Blood Sugar (High)

                     Insulin  –   Glucose (C6H12O6) –   Glycogen
• • Blood Sugar (High)

                     Insulin  –   Glucose (C6H12O6) –   Glycogen
• • Calcium (Low)

  1. Pyrathyroid Gland release hormones (PTH)
  2. PTH stimulates   osteoclast to breakdown bone and calcium which will release to the blood stream
  3. PTH Stimulates the kidney to take up calcium from the urine and return it to the blood. (release urine) 
  4.  PTH activates vitamin D formation which promotes absorption of calcium through small intestine.
• • Calcium (high)

  1. Thyroid Gland –   release calcitonin 
  2. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclast (decrease blood calcium level that are too high
• 1. Thyroid Gland –   release calcitonin 
• 1. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclast (decrease blood calcium level that are too high
• 1. Axial Skeleton

  • Supports the head, neck, back, and chest thus forms the vertical axis of the body. 
  • It consists of the skull, Mandible, Hyoid bone, sternum, ribs, vertebral column, and sacrum.
• Appendicular Skeleton

  • Includes the bones of the limbs and their attachments to the axial skeleton.
  • It consists of clavicle, scapula, humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones (metacarpal bones, phalanges), fibula, patella, tibia, femur and tarsal bones (metatarsal bones, phalanges).
• 2 types of Ribs

  True ribs and False ribs
• 1. True ribs

  • 7 ribs are attached directly to the sternum by costal cartilages.
• 1. False ribs

  • 8-12 ribs that do not attached to the sternum but connected to cartilages.
• Muscular System

  • Composed of specialized cells called muscle fiber.
• Major Functions of Muscular System

  • Responsible for movement
  • Maintain posture
  • Respiration 
  • Production of body heat
  • Communication
  • Constriction of organs and vessels
  • Contraction of the heat
• • Respiration 
  • Aerobic Respiration
  • Anaerobic respiration
• • Aerobic Respiration
  • Requires the presence of oxygen to breakdown food energy to generate ATP 
• • Anaerobic respiration
  • Breakdown energy stores in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP.