marga

• Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
• Straw Man: Misrepresenting or oversimplifying someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
• False Cause: Incorrectly asserting that one thing caused another without proper evidence.
• Appeal to Authority: Using the endorsement of a famous person or authority figure as evidence in an argument.
• Circular Reasoning: Assuming what you are trying to prove is already true in your argument.
• Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant information to distract from the argument at hand.
• False Dilemma: Presenting only two options when there are actually more available.
• Slippery Slope: Asserting that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of events with significant consequences.
• Appeal to Ignorance: Asserting that a proposition is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa.
• Hasty Generalization: Drawing a conclusion based on a small sample size rather than a substantial and representative one.
• A relation is any set of ordered pairs. The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation, and the set of all second elements is called the range.
• A function is a relation or rule of correspondence between two elements (domain and range) such that each element in the domain corresponds to exactly one element in the range
• Metaphysics: Examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the nature of existence, time, space, causality, and the relationship between mind and matter.
• Epistemology: Investigates the nature, scope, and limits of knowledge, as well as the rationality of belief, skepticism, and the justification of knowledge claims.
• Ethics: Explores questions of morality, including concepts of right and wrong behavior, ethical theories such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics, and how ethical principles apply to individual actions and societal norms.
• Logic: Studies the principles of valid reasoning and inference, including deductive and inductive reasoning, formal systems of logic, and logical fallacies.
• Political Philosophy: Examines the nature of government, justice, rights, authority, and the moral principles that should govern political systems and social organization.
• Aesthetics: Considers questions related to beauty, art, taste, and the nature of aesthetic experience, including theories of art, criticism, and the role of creativity in human life.
• Philosophy of Mind: Investigates the nature of consciousness, mental states, perception, cognition, and the mind-body problem—the relationship between the mind and the physical brain.
• Philosophy of Language: Explores the nature of language, meaning, communication, and linguistic representation, as well as the relationship between language and thought.
• Schramm's model of communication includes a feedback loop and the processes of encoding, decoding, and interpretation.
• The Shannon–Weaver model-mother of all models of communication
• Aristotle's model-a speaker centered model of communication
• White's model communication-circular and continuous
• Wilbur Schramm-father of mass communication
• Hypothesis-It is a proposed explanation, assertion, or assumption about a population parameter or about the distribution of a random variable.
• Hypothesis Testing-statistical method used in making decisions using experimental data
• Level of Significance-probability of committing an incorrect decision about the null hypothesis
• 𝐻𝑎 ≠ 100 -describes an alternative hypothesis using two-tailed test
• Type I Error-rejecting H₀ when it is true
• Type II Error-fail to reject H₀ when it is false
• We reject a null hypothesis that is true-Type I error committed
• We fail to reject a null hypothesis that is false-type II error committed
• The critical value is a point (boundary) on the test distribution that is compared to the test statistic to determine if the null hypothesis would be rejected.
• The non-rejection region (or acceptance region) is the set of all values of the test statistic that causes us to fail to reject the null hypothesis.
• The rejection region (or critical region) is the set of all values of the test statistic that causes us to reject the null hypothesis.
• The critical value is a point (boundary) on the test distribution that is compared to the test statistic to determine if the null hypothesis would be rejected.
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