How we learn + memory

• Who proposed Levels of Processing?

  Craik & Lockhart, 1972
• Encoding

  Translating/converting information into a format that can be stored
• Retrieval

  Recovering information that can be stored and used for learning
• Levels of processing

  The idea that the level or depth of encoding information during learning determines what is stored in LTM
• What type of procedure can show levels of processing?

  Incidental Learning Procedure by Craik & Tulving, 1975
• Stimulus for incidental learning procedure by Craik and Tulving, 1975

  Exposed to 48 words under three levels of processing ranging from shallow to deep processing
• Name the three levels of processing from shallow to deep

  Visual, Phonemic, Semantic
• Phonemic = rhyming
• How were participants tested in Craik+Tulving's incidental learning procedure?

  Free recall test
• Apart from establishing a level of processing effect, what else did Craik and Tulving conclude from the incidental learning results?

  Elaboration matters - words accompanied by complex sentences remembered better than simple sentences
• What type of processing challenges Craik+Tulving's Levels of Processing argument?

  Morris, Bransford & Franks' 1977 Transfer appropriate processing
• What was the conclusion of Morris et al's TAP study?

  Encoding and retrieval must match in order for better processing
• What were the findings of Morris et al.'s TAP study?

  Although semantic processing is effective for a standard recognition test, shallower phonemic processing was better suited to the rhyme recognition test than deeper semantic processing.
• Testing Effect

  LTM is enhanced when some of learning is used to retrieve to-be-learned information rather than studying it.