Reading & Writing

• Writing - conventional system of marks and signs that represents the utterance of a language.
• Narration - storytelling pattern of paragraph development.
• basic elements of a story: setting, characters, plot, theme
• Objective Narration - a type of narration that is direct and factual; based on reality.
• Subjective Narration - based on personal interpretations.
• Description - to tell what something is like and appeals to the reader's senses. (sight, smell, taste, touch, sound)
• Genre of Description:

  1. Literary Analysis
  2. Descriptive Essays
  3. Business Plans
  4. Laboratory Report
  5. Research Papers
• Objective Description - without any judgements.
• Subjective Description - based on personal attitude towards a subject.
• Definition - answers, "What is it?", explains the meaning of a word, concept, or idea, and identifies the terms and sets.
• Synonym - words that mean the same thing.
• Class - to put your topic into a larger category to explain your term.
• Negation - when the writer says something is not, and then says what it is.
• Classification/Exemplification - the process of sorting out items to group those similar characteristics.
• Comparison - to point out the similarities.
• Contrast - to point out the differences.
• Cause and Effect - to point out the relationship between events/situations and possible consequences.
• Cause - to analyze why something happened.
• Effect - to analyze the end-product.
• Problem-Solution - organizes ideas into problems and offer solution.
• Persuasion - expresses a strong opinion about something to get other minds to agree to the main topic.
• Mechanics - spelling, grammar, punctuation, indention, capitalization.
• Grammar - how we organize words into sentences.
• Sentence - the word/phrases that expresses a complete idea/thought.
• Punctuations - These are marks used to clarify meaning by indicating the separation of words into sentences, clauses, and phrases.
• Sentence - refers to the set of words or phrases that expresses a complete idea or taught.
• Organization means the writer must consciously arrange and classify ideas to achieve logical and clear writing.
• Organization - It constitutes proper paragraphing and logical presentation of ideas. 
• three parts of the organization:

  1. The Topic Sentence
  2. The Body
  3. The Closing Sentence
• Deductive Organization - starts with the general idea branching out to the specific ideas.
• Inductive Organization - must start with the specific ideas leading to the general idea.
• Listing of Ideas/Brainstorming - simply an enumeration of ideas that directly or indirectly refer to the specific topic.
• Graphic Organizers - help writers to visually map written ideas and plot them so it will be easier to create and observe relationships.
• Types of Graphic Organizers:

  1. Flowchart
  2. Cycle
  3. Organizational Chart
  4. Venn Diagram
• Outlining - contains the main points of what you are writing about. Like brainstorming, an outline is an enumerated list of writing ideas.
• Topic Outline - words and phrases only.
• Sentence Outline - composed of complete simple sentences.
• Coherence - refers to how the ideas are logically arranged. It is essential to arrange ideas logically for your readers to follow what you want to say in writing.
• Cohesion - refers to the smooth transition among the ideas represented in the sentences and paragraphs, facilitated by the grammatically correct connections within and among sentences.
• Ways of Achieving Cohesion:

  1. Using Substitution
  2. Using Transitional Devices