Observational techniques

• Covert observations unaware particpant people e.g using a one-way mirror or joining a group as a member.
• Participants in covert observations may be informed of their involvement in the study after the observation has taken place.
• A limitation of non-particpany observations is that some behaviours could be missed if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded.
• A strength of covert observation compared to overt observation is that investigator effects are less likely as the investigator is hidden.
• A strength of covert observation compared to overt observation is that investigator effects are less likely as the investigator is hidden.
• There are ethical issues associated with the covert method of observation inherent within its design as participants are not aware they are taking part in an investigation, they cannot give fully informed consent, nor exercise their right to withdraw.
• An overt observation is an observational technique where the observations are 'open' and the participants know/are aware that they are being observed, for example, filming publicly or joining a class and informing the other students that you are carrying out an observation.
• A strength of the overt method is that it is often more ethical than the covert method as participants are aware that their behaviour is being observed for the purposes of a psychological investigation, it is possible to inform them in advance of the aims and thus obtain informed consent.
• This awareness of participation also allows participants to exercise their right to withdraw themselves or their data from the investigation before, during or after the observation is conducted.
• A strength of using participant observations in psychological research is that the researcher can obtain in-depth data due to their close proximity to the participants.
• Non-participant observations involve the person conducting the observation not participating in the activity being observed, often sitting in the corner of the room and watching the lesson.
• An advantage of using a non-participant observation method is that investigator effects are less likely compared to a participant observation.
• A bias can occur where the investigator's actions influence the behaviour of the participants in a way that was not intended, such as through body language or facial expressions.
• The researcher is often observing at a distance from the participants) and in some situations, is not visible to them at all.
• Participant observations involve the person conducting the observation also taking part in the activity being observed, either covertly or overtly.
• Natural behaviour is not being observed, thus reducing the internal validity of the observation because the investigator is a participant.
• By participating in the activity, the researcher is unlikely to overlook any behaviour that, as an external observer, would be missed due to nuances only seen by becoming a participant of the activity itself.
• A disadvantage of using the participant observation method is the possibility of investigator effects and the impact of the researcher on the other participants' behaviour.
• Consequently, the participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims.
• The mere presence of the investigator as a member within the group might influence the participants' behaviour in a way which was not intended.
• As a result, the behaviour of the investigator is unlikely to have a negative impact on the behaviour of the participants.
• A drawback of using an overt style of observation is the possibility of investigator effects.
• The disadvantage of the non-participant method of observation is that the researcher might miss behaviours of interest due to a lack of proximity to the participant behaviour being studied.
• A criticism of controlled observation is that they have a lower level of external validity as the researcher records behaviour in an artificial environment with variables subject to strict manipulation.
• The non-participant method of observation is a research method where the researcher observes the behaviour of others without interacting with them.
• A strength of controlled observations is that they can be replicated to check for reliability as the variables are highly controlled in this type of observational design.
• The test-retest method of checking reliability cannot be used with naturalistic observations as the researcher is not in control of variables.
• One-way mirrors can be used for controlled observations.
• There are issues of ascertaining reliability with naturalistic observations as observations of this kind record behaviours which are occurring naturally as they unfold.
• If the participants know they are being observed, this is an overt method which is most commonly the case for controlled observations.
• Naturalistic observations often lack replicability due to the difficulty of replicating the exact same conditions.
• Naturalistic observations are observations carried out in an unaltered setting in which the observer does not interfere in any way and merely observes the behaviour in question as it happens normally.
• A strength of using naturalistic observations is that a higher level of ecological validity can be achieved as the behaviour being recorded is likely to be more representative of everyday activities and reflect spontaneous actions that sometimes occur incidentally.
• Controlled observations are conducted under strict conditions, such as in an observation room or laboratory setting where extraneous variables (such as time of day, noise, temperature and visual distractions) can be controlled to avoid interference with the behaviour being observed.
• what are the strengths and weakness of covert obsevations?

  + less demand charactertics, relfective of natural behaviour

  + less investigator effects, less demand characteristics

  • lack of informed consent, but acceptable in public places X privacy laws violated
• strength and weakness of overt observations

  • investigator effects cauing demand charateritics

  + gain informed consent
• strengths and weakness of naturalistic observation

  + high ecological validty, representative of natural

  • extraneous varibles cant replicate, less reliable
• Naturalistic observations are carried out in an unaltered setting
• strengths and weakness of controlled observations?

  + High control, standardised procedures, reliable

  • external valdity not natural
• structured observations has schedule observations such as ebhaviour categories