Chapter 17 - The Spirit of Locarno

• What happened in September 1923?

  Britain rejected the draft disarmament treaty at the Assembly of the League of Nations
• What happened in April 1924?

  Dawes Plan created
• What happened in October 1924?

  Geneva Protocol given preliminary approval by LON
• What happened in March 1925?

  New British gov refused to ratify Geneva Protocol
• What happened in August 1925?

  Last French and Belgian troops withdrew from the Ruhr
• What happened in October 1925?

  Locarno agreements signed
• What happened in August 1928?

  Kellogg-Briand Pact signed by Germany, France and the USA
• What were attempts at disarmament and conciliation in international relations like in 1923?

  • Following the short term resolution of border disputes and the imposition of the post-war settlements across Europe, the attention of the LON turned to the aim of disarmament
  • The issue of reparations also needed to be urgently addressed in response to the occupation of the Ruhr
• What happened in 1921?

  • The USA had hosted the Washington Naval Conference to prevent a potential naval race in the Pacific
  • The LON also created the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments
• What did the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments do?

  • Charged with the task of developing potential solutions to the disarmament question
  • Proposed several initiatives including a ban on the bombing of citizens, restricting the amount of artillery and tanks any nation could hold and prohibiting the use of chemical warfare
  • However, the delegates could not move past the difficult and contentious issue of how a country would be able to defend itself if it surrendered its weapons
• What had the LON hoped for the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance?

  That it would act as a severe deterrent against aggression
• What were the proposed terms of the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance?

  • In the event of a conflict, the LON would have a deadline of 4 days to decide which nation was the aggressor and which the victim
  • After these 4 days, the LON would send armed forces to defend the victim country
  • All members of the LON would be expected to contribute troops to the peacekeeping effort
• How was the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance perceived?

  • It was unpalatable to many nations, especially Britain
  • Many nations baulked at the idea of everyone contributing troops
  • The lack of clear guidelines on how the LON would judge victim from aggressor in such a short timespan was also discouraging
• Why did Britain put up the strongest resistance to the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance?

  They objected to the use of their troops in the manner proposed when they were needed to defend the Empire
• What was the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance evidence of for the LON despite its never being enacted?

  The drafting was the most determined effort to date of the LON to resolve many of the grey areas in its Covenant and processes related to peacekeeping
• How had views towards the post-war settlement changed as a result of the harsh treatment at the hand of the Ruhr occupiers?

  • Germany was no longer viewed as the "Bogeyman" of Europe
  • This title passed to Communist Russia
  • Germany was therefore viewed by Britain and France as a potential bulwark against Russian aggression
• How did the British view Germany in relation to the post-war settlement?

  Some economists and politicians feared that without an urgent review of Germany's ability to pay reparations and service its war debts, an internal revolution would ensure it became a communist state on its own terms
• What state was France in after the Ruhr occupation?

  • They were bitter about the relative failure of the Ruhr occupation, especially the lack of support from Britain
  • The invasion had provoked an economic downturn in France and, as the French economy was increasingly bolstered by American loans, it could not afford to court the hostility of its creditor by refusing to review the reparations question or the occupation
• What happened in November 1923?

  Britain, France and the USA agreed to discuss reparations again
• How was the Dawes Plan discussed?

  • A commission was created under the US economist Charles Dawes
  • The commission comprised two financial experts each from the USA, Britain, France, Belgium and Italy
• What was the aim of the Dawes Plan discussions?

  They wanted to restructure reparations and support the German economy in such a way that would encourage German recovery so that it could afford to make payments to the Allies, who would have no need to take them by force as France and Belgium had done
• What were the terms of the 1924 Dawes Plan?

  • German reparations were restructured - in the first year of payment, Germany would pay 1 bil marks, increasing to 2.5 in subsequent years
  • The Reichsbank would be restructured under Allied supervision
  • Germany would resume control of the Ruhr and French and Belgian troops would withdraw to allow Germany to regain key industrial resources, facilitating its recovery
  • Sanctions against Germany were only to be used if it deliberately failed to honour these commitments
  • Alongside the plan, the USA agreed to loan Germany 800 mil marks, and after the Plan's approval, American investors rushed to invest in Germany's recovery
• What did the USA do to ensure French acceptance of the 1924 Dawes Plan?

  • Sent Parker Gilbert to Germany as "General Reparations Agent" to supervise payments
  • This was key to French acceptance of the deal as, despite the amount of reparations being lowered, the French were relieved to have international support to ensure that Germany did not default on its payments again
• How long was the Dawes Plan to last before being reviewed again?

  Five years
• What two new appointments were made in German politics in 1923?

  • Wilhelm Marx was made Chancellor
  • Hjalmar Schact was made new Reichbank President
• When was the new Rentenmark finally introduced?

  November 1923
• How did Schacht stabilise the German economy?

  • New Rentenmark slowly brought inflation under control
  • British and American funding helped to make economic reforms, including a credit freeze to create stability
  • However, hyperinflation had already caused considerable damage to the Weimar gov's popularity
  • Political turbulence led President Ebert to pass Schacht's reforms by emergency decree under Article 48 of the constitution instead of having them passed by the Reichstag
• Who was Edouard Herriot (1872-1957)?

  • A left wing politician who became French PM in 1924
  • He aimed to improve relations with other powers by agreeing to end the Ruhr occupation and accepting the Dawes Plan
  • He recognised the threat posed by Nazi Germany and was taken prisoner when Germany invaded France in 1940
  • After his release, he continued in French politics
• What happened in London in summer 1924?

  As the Dawes Plan involved a review of the terms of the TOV, an international conference was convened
• Which two delegations were of particular significance in the summer 1924 international conference?

  • The USA, who hoped to act as "honest brokers" for Europe
  • Germany, which was treated as an equal for the first time since 1919
• What is meant by the term "honest brokers"?

  Arbitrators in a dispute or potential disputes who remain neutral and consider points made by all parties concerned
• How did the French act towards the Germans in the summer 1924 international conference?

  • Poincare's personal disapproval was no longer a factor as a result of the new PM
  • However, Herriot tried to secure secure compensation for France in the form of payment in return for their withdrawal from the Ruhr
  • He was persuaded, however, to agree to evacuate his troops within a year
• What were the consequences of the 1924 Dawes Plan?

  • Financed Germany's recovery until the Wall Street Crash 1929
  • Germany's international standing also greatly improved as a result of the plan
  • Ramsay MacDonald, new British PM, was optimistic about the long term consequences of this development
• What did Ramsay MacDonald say about the 1924 Dawes Plan?


  We are now offering the first really negotiated agreement since the war. This agreement may be regarded as the first Peace Treaty, because we sign it with a feeling that we have turned our backs on the terrible years of war and war mentality
• Who was Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937)?

  • Britain's first Labour PM, serving for 10 months in 1924 and again between 1929-1935
  • He had opposed Britain's involvement in WW1 and favoured internationalism in world affairs
  • MacDonald led the Conservative-dominated National Gov formed in the midst of the Great Depression, which damaged his reputation amongst left-wing supporters
• Why was the 1924 Dawes Plan a matter of concern for French politicians?

  • They felt their position was isolated and vulnerable
  • The British and Americans had strongly discouraged another occupation to secure reparations, while the terms of the plan superseded the existed Reparations Commission in which France had greater influence
• What did the 1924 Dawes Plan highlight?

  • Highlighted a shift to a more conciliatory approach to Germany
  • However, it undermined the TOV in the process by revising its terms
  • The French had also learned it could not successfully enforce the TOV's terms without the explicit support of Britain
• What was the problem with the LON's promise to "preserve" its members against acts of aggression?

  The Covenant did not define what an act of aggression was
• What made the LON's response slow and exposed to claims of partiality?

  • The fact that, in the event of disputes, the LON had to make a decision on whether aggression had taken place before taking action
  • This situation helped to muddle the response to the Corfu incident
• Which three leaders advocated a solution to the issues with the LON's responses to disputes in 1924?

  • MacDonald (Britain)
  • Herriot (France)
  • Edvard Benes (Czech)