Chapter 20 - The Collapse of Collective Security

• What was collective security?

  • The underlying principle of the LON
  • The idea that states should cooperate and support each other if one was threatened by another power
  • The security of each country was therefore, in theory, far stronger than if they acted alone
• Why did the pursuit of collective security start to be challenged after its success in the 1920s?

  • It was significantly challenged by the changing balance of power brought about by the new ambitions of Germany, Italy and Japan
  • Stanley Baldwin June 1936 - "Collective security failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions"
  • The principle of collective security was under threat due to the practicalities of enforcing it
• What was Japan's aim in response to their internal problems?

  Influential nationalists in the Japanese army were determined to colonise China
• What was the Kwantung army?

  The largest and most influential military group of the Japanese army - had an increasingly strong influence over civilian gov in the 1930s and was stationed in Manchuria in 1931
• Why was Manchuria important to Japan?


  Japan had extensive political and economic influence here
• What happened on 18th September 1931?

  • Kwantung officers exploded a bomb on the Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railway and blamed it on local Chinese troops
  • Within hours, the town of Mukden had been taken over by Japanese forces, and four days later, the Kwantung troops occupied towns within a 200 mile radius of Mukden
• What happened on 21st September 1931?

  • The Chinese appealed to the LON under Article 11 of the Covenant
  • This stated that any war or threat of war necessitated the emergency meeting of the Council, summoned by the Secretary General
• What did the LON do in response to China's appeal for help?

  Ordered the Japanese to withdraw by the 16th November 1931, but Kwantung officers ignored this deadline
• What happened on 10th December 1931?

  • A commission was ordered to investigate the claims of China and Japan in Manchuria and recommend solutions
  • This was chaired by British politician Victor Bulwer Lytton and made up of French, Italian, German and American representatives with Chinese and Japanese advisers
• What happened on 29th February 1932?

  The commission landed in China, but progress towards a thorough investigation was painstakingly slow, exacerbated by deliberate Japanese obstruction
• What was Britain's reaction to the Manchurian Crisis?

  • Britain had commercial interests in China and a former alliance with Japan and so became a reluctant focus of the West's reaction to the Manchurian Crisis
  • The timing, however, was unfortunate as the economic effects of the Depression were yet to be resolved and Britain simply could not afford to send a peacekeeping force to such a remote conflict
  • Public opinion was correspondingly pessimistic
• Why was the prospect of imposing economic sanctions on Japan to force her withdrawal a non-starter?

  This was one of the few main "weapons" in the LON's arsenal, however, the USA (Japan's main trading partner) had already refused to engage in an international response to the crisis despite being a member of the Lytton Commission
• What had the Japanese done by the end of 1932?

  • With no firm deterrent from the international community, the Japanese forces in China extended their strategic objectives
  • By the end of 1932, invasion forces had pushed on to Shanghai (largest Asian port), and all of Manchuria was under Japanese control
  • To emphasise this development, the province was renamed Manchukuo in March and the former Chinese Emperor, Henry Pu Yi was installed as a puppet ruler under Japanese direction
• What happened on 10th October 1932?

  Despite the escalation of the Japanese invasion throughout 1932, the 139-page Lytton report was not published until now
• What did the 1932 Lytton report say?

  Condemned the creation of Manchukuo as a Japanese protectorate, arguing it contravened the principle of self-determination and insisted on the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the region
• What was the outcome of the 1932 Lytton report?

  All member states of the Council voted in favour of the Lytton report except Japan
• How did the Japanese respond to the 1932 Lytton report?

  • The Japanese delegation led by Matsuoka was furious and argued angrily that China was equally to blame for the conflict
  • Upon hearing the result of the vote, Matsuoka led his delegation in a walk out
• What happened after the 1932 Lytton report?

  • Discussions on what action to take were no easier following Japan's withdrawal from the process
  • Talks continued in late 1932 and early 1933 with very little agreement
• What happened in February 1933?

  • The issue of the Manchurian Crisis was referred to the Assembly which contained stronger anti-Japanese sentiments and more member states
  • A new report was therefore drafted
• What did the Assembly's report on the Manchurian Crisis 1933 say?

  • It incorporated Lytton's findings and insisted on both the Japanese army's withdrawal from Manchuria and Japanese recognition of China's rights to the region
  • It still, however, fell short of condemning Japan
• When was the Assembly's report on the Manchurian Crisis adopted?

  Adopted on 24th February 1933 by 42:1 votes
• How did Japan react to the Assembly's report on the Manchurian Crisis 1933?

  • As with the Lytton report, Japan ignored it
  • Japan went on to leave the LON altogether in March 1933
• What is Abyssinia?


  An alternative name for the Ethiopian Empire in the 1930s
• What did Italy do after having completed the "Pacification of Libya"?

  Mussolini turned his attention to establishing an empire in East Africa
• Why was Abyssinia a ripe target for Mussolini's East African Empire aims?

  • Ruled by Haile Selassie, the country was one of the only 2 remaining independent states in Africa
  • However, it was economically undeveloped and had no modern military capabilities
  • Also, the status of Abyssinian borders was not clear, and so it would be easy for Italy to turn a border dispute into the justification for an invasion
• Who was Haile Selassie (1892-1975)?

  • Became Emperor of Ethiopia/Abyssinia in 1930
  • As regent, he had progressive policies and achieved Ethiopia's entrance into the LON
  • In 1931 he introduced Ethiopia's first written constitution
  • He fled the country following Italy's invasion but was restored as Emperor in 1941
  • Selassie became a popular and respected figure but was deposed in 1974 following a revolution
• What happened throughout 1934?

  Italian troops began to occupy positions around Abyssinia's ambiguous borders, and the hoped for provocation occurred in December 1934 in Walwal
• What happened in December 1934 in Walwal?

  • In a skirmish between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers, 30 Italians were killed
  • Mussolini insisted on a thorough apology from the Abyssinians and ordered that they pay heavy compensation
• What did the Abyssinians do in response to Mussolini's provocation in December 1934?

  Appealed to the LON to arbitrate and an enquiry was set up, however, nothing practical was done to prevent a full-scale Italian invasion
• When did Italy launch a full-scale invasion of Abyssinia?

  October 1935
• What gave Mussolini encouragement to invade Abyssinia in 1935?

  • He sought assurances that Britain and France wouldn't oppose his Abyssinian ambitions
  • The Rome Agreements with France Jan 1935 convinced him of French support - further reinforced by April 1935 Stresa Pact
  • He accurately calculated that both Britain and France would be more concerned by Hitler's rearmament and the possible consequences for the peace in Europe for them to risk Italy's friendship by obstructing the Abyssinian invasion
• Why did Germany's rearmament worry Italy, however?

  • Italy's sending of 650,000 troops to Africa could expose Italy to potential German aggression
  • However, the Stresa Pact once again convinced Mussolini that the risk was low
• How was the Italian invasion of Abyssinia 1935 executed thoroughly?

  • Mussolini insisted on 10 army divisions rather than the 3 recommended by his generals
  • The Italian army made full use of their modern equipment - tanks, planes and poison gas - against often barefooted Abyssinians who fought defiantly with rifles and spears
• What happened in May 1936?

  The Italians captured the capital Addis Ababa, forced Haile Selassie to flee and declared victory
• How did the LON respond to the Abyssinian Crisis 1935?

  • Quick to respond to Italian aggression, declaring Italy the aggressor
  • LON condemned Italy's action as an unprovoked invasion in contravention of the Covenant
• How did Britain respond to the Abyssinian Crisis 1935?

  • Led the call to impose economic sanctions on Italy, but as world trade was yet to fully recover following the Depression, there was little international enthusiasm for the move
  • However, committing their own troops was even less palatable to member states and so a series of economic restrictions were imposed on Italy, though the nature of sanctions was once again compromised by nations asserting their own interests
• What sanctions were imposed against Italy by the LON in response to the Abyssinian Crisis?

  • The sale of armaments to Italy was banned
  • Trading some other goods, including gold, rubber, tin and textiles with Italy was banned
  • Loans to Italy were prohibited
  • League members could not import Italian goods
• What sanctions against Italy were avoided by the LON in response to the Abyssinian Crisis?

  • Oil exports to Italy were not banned; it was argued that Italy would simply get oil from the USA, making the sanction useless
  • Coal exports to Italy were not banned; it was argued that British coal-mining would be adversely affected and 30,000 could lose their jobs
  • The Suez Canal, jointly owned by Britain and France, was not closed to Italian ships
• What highlighted the weakness of the sanctions the LON decided to impose against Italy?

  The fear held by Britain and France that Italy would abandon the Stresa front and ally with Germany, and perhaps provoke war immediately afterwards
• What weaknesses were there with the sanctions imposed against Italy?

  • Allowing oil and coal into Italy helped to resource its war machine
  • Keeping the Suez Canal open meant that the Italian army had an uninterrupted and convenient supply line to continue its campaign
  • In many ways the sanctions imposed were the worst of both worlds - they weren't strong enough to convince Mussolini to abandon the invasion, but they were frustrating enough to turn Italian opinion against the LON and towards an alliance with Germany