Ballpen

• Cognitive load refers to the total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory during learning.
• Languages are sets of signs that combine an exponent (a sequence of letters or sounds) with a meaning
• Grammar is a way to generate signs from more basic signs
• Language is a means to communicate, it is a semiotic system
• A sign in language consists of a signifier (any material thing that signifies) and a signified (the concept that a signifier refers to)
• Signs combine a form and a meaning, and they are identical with neither their exponent nor with their meaning
• Language acquisition is a natural, subconscious process where children acquire language through meaningful interaction without being aware of grammatical rules
• Children acquire their first language(s) by repeating what is said to them and getting a feel for what is correct
• Children who grow up with multiple languages acquire them naturally by repeating what they hear and using them purposefully in communication
• Language learning is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language, usually with a basic knowledge of grammar of their first languages
• When learning a new language, there is a deductive approach to intonations, phonology, morphology, and syntax
• Signs (letters and letter combinations) represent sounds and by combining them, we form words that convey meaning
• Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules and does not require tedious drill
• Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition includes the Acquisition-Learning distinction, Monitor hypothesis, Input hypothesis, and Natural Order hypothesis
• The Acquisition-Learning distinction states that there are two independent systems of foreign language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'
• The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning, where the learning system acts as a 'monitor' for correctness
• The Input hypothesis suggests that language learners acquire language by understanding input in the target language through natural communication
• Krashen also discusses individual variation among language learners in their use of the 'monitor' as over-users, under-users, or optimal users
• An evaluation of a person's psychological profile can help determine their 'monitor' use group
• Extroverts are often under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users of the 'monitor'
• Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'
• Krashen's Input hypothesis explains how learners acquire a second language
• The hypothesis is concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'
• Learners improve and progress along the 'natural order' when they receive second language 'input' that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence
• Acquisition takes place when learners are exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'
• Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is key to designing a syllabus to ensure each learner receives appropriate input for their current stage of linguistic competence
• Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis explains the role of 'affective variables' in second language acquisition
• Variables include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety, and personality traits
• Learners with high motivation, self-confidence, good self-image, low anxiety, and extroversion are better equipped for success in second language acquisition
• Low motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion, and inhibition can raise the affective filter and prevent comprehensible input from being used for acquisition
• Positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place
• Krashen's Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings that suggest the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order'
• Some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late, independent of learners' age, L1 background, and conditions of exposure
• There is a Natural Order of language acquisition, but Krashen rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition
• Human Language versus Animal Language
• Human language is symbolic, using a set number of sounds and characters, allowing ideas to be recorded and preserved
• Animal communication is not symbolic and cannot preserve ideas of the past
• Human language can arrange words into an infinite number of ideas, while animals have a limited number of combinations for communication
• Human language is referential, used to exchange specific information about people or objects and their actions
• Five Stages of Second Language Acquisition