Schools of Psychology

• Behavior refers to outward or overt actions and reactions
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
• Mental processes are internal, covert activities of our minds
• Psychology aims to prevent possible biases from leading to faulty observations
• Precise and careful measurement is essential in psychology
• Psychology has four main goals:

  • Description: What is happening?
  • Explanation: Why is it happening?
  • Theory: General explanation of a set of observations or facts
  • Prediction: Will it happen again?
  • Control: How can it be changed?
• Structuralism focused on the structure or basic elements of the mind

  • Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879
  • Edward Titchener brought structuralism to America
  • Margaret Washburn was the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
  • Structuralism died out in the early 1900s
• Functionalism focuses on how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play

  • Proposed by William James
  • Influenced modern fields such as educational psychology, evolutionary psychology, and industrial/organizational psychology
• Gestalt psychology, meaning "good figure" psychology, focuses on perception, learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving

  • Started by Wertheimer
  • Gestalt ideas are now part of cognitive psychology
• Psychoanalysis is based on the work of Sigmund Freud

  • Emphasizes the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences
  • Freud believed that repressed urges could lead to nervous disorders
• Behaviorism is the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

  • John B. Watson proposed behaviorism
  • Ivan Pavlov's work on conditioning influenced behaviorism
  • Phobias were believed to be learned according to behaviorism
• Modern perspectives in psychology include:

  • Psychodynamic perspective
  • Behavioral perspective
  • Humanistic perspective
  • Biopsychological perspective
  • Cognitive perspective
  • Sociocultural perspective
  • Evolutionary perspective
• Psychological professionals include:

  • Psychiatrist: Medical doctor specialized in diagnosing and treating psychological disorders
  • Psychoanalyst: Specialized in Freud's theories and psychoanalysis
  • Psychiatric social worker: Focuses on environmental conditions impacting mental disorders
  • Psychologist: Professional with specialized training in psychology, can do counseling, teaching, and research
• The scientific method in psychology involves:

  • Perceiving the question
  • Forming a hypothesis
  • Testing the hypothesis
  • Drawing conclusions
  • Reporting results for replication
• Descriptive methods in psychology include:

  • Naturalistic observation
  • Participant observation
  • Laboratory observation
  • Case studies
  • Surveys
• Correlation is a measure of the relationship between two variables

  • Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
  • Correlation does not prove causation
• An experiment involves deliberate manipulation of a variable to determine cause-and-effect relationships

  • Includes an operational definition, independent variable (IV), and dependent variable (DV)
  • Experimental group is subjected to the independent variable, control group is not
• Experimental group: subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable
• Control group: subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and may receive a placebo treatment to control for confounding variables
• Random assignment: process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, ensuring each subject has an equal chance of being in either group
• Placebo effect: phenomenon where participants' expectations in a study can influence their behavior
• Single-blind study: subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or control group, reducing the placebo effect
• Experimenter effect: tendency of the experimenter's expectations to unintentionally influence the study results
• Double-blind study: neither the experimenter nor the subjects know if the subjects are in the experimental or control group, reducing both the placebo effect and experimenter effect
• Quasiexperimental designs: not true experiments due to the inability to randomly assign participants to groups, for example, when age is the variable of interest
• Ethics committees: groups that review proposed research studies to ensure safety and consideration for participants
• Common ethical guidelines:

  • Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study's value to science
  • Participants must make an informed decision about participation
  • Deception must be justified
  • Participants can withdraw from the study at any time
  • Participants must be protected from risks or informed of risks
  • Investigators must debrief participants, revealing the true nature of the study and expectations of results
  • Data must remain confidential
• Animal research focuses on avoiding unnecessary pain or suffering, with approximately 7% of psychological studies involving animals
• Critical thinking: making reasoned judgments about claims

  • Few "truths" don't need testing
  • Not all evidence is equal
  • Expertise doesn't make claims automatically true
  • Requires an open mind
• Pseudopsychologies: systems explaining human behavior not based on scientific evidence, including phrenology, palmistry, and graphology
• Applying critical thinking to astrology:

  • Astrological charts outdated due to changes in Earth's rotation
  • Importance of birth moment questioned
  • Stars and planets' effects on a person questioned, gravity may have a greater impact
• Web resources for further study and information in psychology
• The Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) is a multidisciplinary, not-for-profit, professional association with a membership of approximately 5,500 researchers, practitioners, and human development professionals from over 50 countries
• The purposes of SRCD are to promote multidisciplinary research in the field of human development, foster the exchange of information among scientists and professionals of various disciplines, and encourage applications of research findings
• Web Resources for Psychology:

  • Amoeba Web: A site with organized tables of links related to various topics in psychology
  • Centre for Psychology Resources: Provides comprehensive information on psychology topics
  • PsychCrawler: A search engine for psychology information
  • Psychwatch: A global communication and information network for healthcare and mental health professionals
  • Psych Web: A collection of psychology-related links maintained by Georgia Southern University
  • Psychology Central: Web links and resources for psychology students and faculty
• • Psychology Jumping Stand: A list of sites for psychology students to explore
  • Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health: An online resource for questioning scientific claims in mental health research
  • Social Psychology Network: Well-organized links related to social psychology topics
  • Tests, Tests, Tests: A variety of psychological tests maintained by "Cyberia Shrink"
• Web Resources for the History of Psychology:

  • Archives of the History of American Psychology: Maintained at the University of Akron
  • Classics in the History of Psychology: Repository with excerpts from classic papers in psychology
  • History of Psychology Timeline: Timeline from early civilization to the present
  • Outlines of Psychology: Translation of Wundt's 1897 text
  • Today in the History of Psychology: Information about significant events in psychology history
• Web Resources for Psychological Theories:

  • About Psychoanalysis: An article from the American Psychoanalytic Association
  • Humanistic Psychology and Humanistic Social Science: An essay by Arthur Warmoth
  • Interpretation of Dreams: Sigmund Freud's classic work available online
  • Mind and Body: Rene Descartes to William James: A history of ideas presented by Robert H. Wozniak
  • Postulates of a Structural Theory: 1898 paper by James Titchener outlining structuralist theory
• Web Resources for Majoring in Psychology:

  • Graduate Study in Psychology: Information about graduate school in psychology
  • Tipsheets for Psychology Majors: Helpful resources for psychology students
• Web Resources for Careers in Psychology:

  • American Psychological Association Student Resources: Information about careers in psychology
  • APA Divisions: Links to all divisions of the American Psychological Association
  • Careers in Psychology: Description of various career areas in psychology
  • Marky Lloyd’s Careers in Psychology Page: Helpful site for psychology careers
  • Psychologists: Careers for the 21st Century: Job outlook for psychologists in the next two decades
  • Pursuing Psychology Career Page: Links to general career sites and resources for psychology majors