Attachment

• What is attachment?

  A strong, reciprocal emotional bond between infant and caregiver.
• What is reciprocity?

  From around 3 months.

  A two way exchange of social signals or actions between infant and caregiver, where each persons actions elicit a response from the other.

  E.g. When the infant smiles, it triggers a smile in the caregiver and vice versa.
• Why is reciprocity important?

  Teaches the child to communicate and allows parent to provide better care for the child as they can detect cues from the baby- allowing their needs to be responded to more effectively.
• What is interactional synchrony?

  Studied by Meltzoff and Moore (1977)

  When infant and primary caregiver become synchronised in their interactions.

  E.g. Caregiver laughing and tickling infant as infant giggles.
• Why is interactional synchrony important?

  Studied by Isabella et al (1989)

  Leads to better communication between parent and child when child is older.
• Meltzoff and Moore (1977) study

  Conducted a controlled observation with an adult model who displayed on of three facial expressions or hand movements. The child's response was filmed.

  Found an association between infant behaviour and adult model.

  Later research found same findings in a 3 day old, suggesting interactional synchrony is innate.
• Isabella et al (1989) study

  Observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony.

  They found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment (e.g. emotional intensity of the relationship).

  Therefore highlights how interactional synchrony is important for the development of mother-infant attachment.
• Limitations with research into caregiver-infant interaction

  • Socially sensitive. As it puts pressure on the mother to be deemed as having a strong bond with her infant. E.g. if the mother has to return to work, they may say that the child will not be able to have a strong attachment.
  • Suggests children may be disadvantaged by particular child-rearing practices. In particular- where mother returns to work shortly after birth and child goes to childcare- restricts opportunities for achieving interactional synchrony between mother and infant.
  • Studying infants is also difficult as they are in constant motion- it is hard to determine if their actions are deliberate.
• 4 Attachment behaviours

  • Seeking proximity - child remains physically close to those they are attached to.
  • Distress on separation - child is distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence.
  • Joy on reunion - child gets a sense of relief when they return to attachment figure.
  • Secure-based behaviour - infants display secure-based behaviour when they return to their attachment figure while displaying regular contact with them.
• Schaffer and Emersons 1964 study

  Aim: To identify stages of attachment between infants and parents.

  Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow, from the same working class estate.

  Procedure: Longitudinal study. Babies and mothers were visited at home and observed every month for the first year and again at 18 months, to analyse infant-carer interactions. The mothers kept diaries and were interviewed by the researchers, asking them questions about measures of attachment- e.g. if infant protested on separation and stranger anxiety etc.
• Findings of Schaffer and Emersons 1964 study

  Babies of parents/carers who had 'sensitive responsiveness' (more sensitive to babies signals) were more likely to form an attachment- even if they did not spend the most time with the child.

  Fear of strangers developed 29-36 weeks.

  Attachment to mother developed 25-32 weeks.

  Specific attachments developed 25-32 weeks.
• Schaffer and Emerson (1964) STAGE 1

  Asocial = First few weeks.

  Behaviours towards humans and inanimate objects are similar- but typically happier in presence of non-human objects like toys.

  Can show preference for presence of familiar people and social stimuli (milk, 'cooing')

  Bonds begin through reciprocity and interactional synchrony.
• Schaffer and Emerson (1964) STAGE 2

  Indiscriminate = 2-7 months.

  More observable social behaviour with preference for people over inanimate objects.

  Recognise caregivers and familiar people.

  Accept closeness (cuddles, comfort) from any adult.

  Don't usually show separation or stranger anxiety.
• Schaffer and Emerson (1964) STAGE 3

  Specific = From 7 months.

  Formation of attachment to primary attachment figure (a specific attachment)- to the person who offers most interactions and responds to babies signals with most skill.

  Show signs of separation and stranger anxiety particularly when away from primary attachment figure (usually Mother).
• Schaffer and Emerson (1964) STAGE 4

  Multiple Attachments = Around 10 months.

  Called secondary attachments, to people that they spend time with (father, grandparents etc)

  Majority occur by one years old.

  Separation anxiety can occur when infants are separated from secondary attachments.
• AO3 Evaluation of Schaffer and Emerson (1964) study

  • Strength = High external validity. Not in lab, was observational- babies not distracted by presence of unfamiliar researchers. BUT mothers unlikely to be objective observers, some may be more/less sensitive to child's distress.
  • Strength = Longitudinal design. High internal validity as the same children were followed up and observed regularly.
  • Strength = Real World Application. Findings can be applied to daycare, aids parental knowledge of their children, may avoid putting child in daycare around 7 months due to specific attachment stage.
  • Limitation = Biased sample. All from Glasgow, individualistic, cannot be generalised. Lacks population validity.
  • Limitation = Hard to measure young infants.
  • Limitation = 1960s- social roles/norms have changed, 'blended families'. Lacks temporal validity.
• Insecure- Resistant attachment behaviours

  • High level of separation anxiety
  • High level of stranger anxiety
  • High/clingy proximity seeking
  • Ambivalent response on reunion.
• Insecure- Avoidant attachment behaviours

  • Low level of separation anxiety
  • Low level of stranger anxiety
  • Low/independent proximity seeking
  • Indifferent response on reunion.
• AO3 of Strange Situation Procedure

  • Controlled observation so lacks ecological validity
  • Standardised procedure which allows for replication
  • Sole focus on mother-child relationship
  • Culture-bound test/imposed etic
  • Original study used only 3 attachment types
  • Procedure may measure something other than attachment type- temperament
  • Ethics
  • Evidence: Bick et al, suggests inter-rater reliability is high
• What is Bowlby's Internal Working Model?

  A concept that states that early attachment provides a blueprint for later attachment. These models consist of cognitive-affective schemas about the self as worthy/unworthy of care and others as reliable/unreliable sources of support. This model shapes expectations and behaviours in both childhood and adult relationships.
• Influence of early attachment on relationships

  • Bowlby's internal working model
  • Attachment type associated with quality of peer relations in childhood
  • Myron-Wilson and Smith: Suggested that avoidant children are more likely to be victims of bullying and resistant children are more likely to be bullies.
  • And therefore, securely attached children are less likely to be involved with bullying than insecurely attached children. Because children who were securely attached have developed a positive template/schema (IWM) for future.
  • Children who formed insecure attachments are more likely to have difficulty fitting in and be more inclined to experience bullying.
• Evaluation of the influences of early attachment

  • The internal working model is significantly deterministic as it believes that the behaviour in adult relationships is pre-determined by childhood experiences and thus leaves no room for free will. Therefore there are negative implications of assuming cause and effect because individuals feel 'doomed'.
  • Also difficult to measure the IWM as it is a hypothetical, untestable mental concept.
  • Self-report techniques used to assess quality of childhood may be subjective and be influenced by social desirability bias.
  • Retrospective assessment of early attachment patterns (may not be remembered accurately/distorted).
• AO3 of Schaffer and Emerson Stages

  • Issues studying asocial stage. Young babies have poor coordination and are pretty much immobile. Therefore difficult to make judgements on them based on observations of their behaviour- evidence cannot be relied upon.
  • Issues with assessing multiple attachments. Not entirely clear when this stage occurs. Conflicting research with Bowlby and Van Uzendoorn about age and some collectivist cultures have families working together for everything- such as producing food and child rearing therefore making it more likely that multiple attachments will be formed earlier.
• What is the law of continuity?

  The more constant and predictable a child's care, the better their attachment.
• What is the law of accumulated separation?

  The effects of each separation add up 'the safest amount of separation is none'. Caregiver should constantly be with infant.