1.2: Ultrastructure of Cells

Cards (106)

  • List three adaptations of cells that maximize the SA: volume ratio.
    Understanding: Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.1. Long extensions, such as in neurons.

    2. Thin, flattened shape, such as in red blood cells.

    3. Microvilli, such as in small intestine epithelial cells.
  • Explain why cells are often limited in size by the SA:V ratio.
    Understanding: Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.Larger cells (more volume) have more metabolic reactions occurring in the cytoplasm and as such require more reactants and produce more waste and heat. The exchange of nutrients, waste and heat is a function of the cell membrane (surface area).

    However, since the amount of surface area (membrane) relative to the amount of volume (cytoplasm) decreases in larger cells, the cell will not have a large enough surface area (membrane) to moves reactants into and waste and heat out of the cell. Larger cells have a reduced efficiency of exchange because they have relatively less surface area compared to smaller cells.
  • Describe the relationship between cell size and the SA:V ratio of the cell.
    Understanding: Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.If cell size increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases.

    This means that with larger cells, there is less surface area relative to the amount of volume.
  • Explain the benefits and limitations of using cubes to model the surface area and volume of a cell.
    Understanding: Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.Cubes are often used to model cell size because they can be manipulated, visualized and easily measured.

    However, cells are not cubic in shape.

    Cells are more difficult to manipulate and measure because of their microscopic size.

    Luckily, the relationship between surface area and volume is the same in both cubes and cells.
  • Calculate the surface area, volume and SA:V ratio of a cube.
    Understanding: Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.Surface area= side length^2

    Volume= side length^3

    SA:V ratio = [length^2 / length^3] = side length^-1
  • Outline the activities occurring in the volume and at the surface of the cell.
    Understanding: Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.The cellvolumeis full of cytoplasm in which many metabolic reactions are occurring. The metabolic reactions require reactants (i.e. nutrients and oxygen) and may produce waste (i.e. urea and CO2).

    The cellsurface areais the cell membrane, through which reactants and waste enter and leave the cell.
  • Explain why biological research must take ethical issues into consideration.
    Nature of Science: Research involving stems cells in growing in importance and raises ethical issues.Biological research is a human endeavor and as such will lead to people having different opinions about what is ethical and should be permitted.

    The ethics must be considered while deciding what is best for the collective societal good.
  • Discuss the benefits and drawbacks in using cord blood stem cells.
    Application: Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a newborn baby and from an adult's own tissues.Benefits
    Easy to obtain and store.

    Cells are compatible with newborn from which they were acquired (no immune system rejection)

    Drawbacks
    Multipotent, so limited cells types can be created.
  • Discuss the benefits and drawbacks in using embryonic stem cells.
    Application: Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a newborn baby and from an adult's own tissues.Benefits
    Unlimited division and differentiation potential.

    Cells won't have genetic mutations that have accumulated with age.

    Drawbacks
    Risk of becoming tumorous if division can't be controlled.

    Creation and/or destruction of embryos is involved.
  • Discuss the benefits and drawbacks in using adult stem cells.
    Application: Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a newborn baby and from an adult's own tissues.Benefits
    Can divide endlessly and can differentiate.
    Can be used to repair and regenerate tissues.
    Can be fully compatible with adult self-donor, so no risk of immune rejection.
    Fewer ethical considerations since creation and/or destruction of embryos is not involved.
    Adults can give consent for use of their stem cells.

    Drawbacks
    Hard to find and obtain from the body, and some tissues contain few stem cells.
    Multipotent, so limited cells types can be created.
  • Explain how stem cells are used in the treatment of leukemia.
    Application: Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt's disease and one other named condition.Leukemia is a cancer that leads to the uncontrolled division of the cells that create white blood cells.

    A person with leukemia is given chemotherapy, which kills the cancer cells. Then, bone marrow (containing adult stem cells) is transplanted from a donor to the person with leukemia. The stem cells establish themselves, divide and start to produce new blood cells.
  • Explain how stem cells are used in the treatment of Stargardt's disease.
    Application: Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt's disease and one other named condition.Stargardt's disease is a recessive genetic disease that causes light detection cells of the retina to degenerate. Vision becomes progressively worse and eventually leads to blindness.

    As a treatment, retina cells derived from embryonic stem cells are injected into the eyes. These cells attach to the retina, divide and differentiate into healthy retinal cells which improves vision.
  • Define "pluripotent."
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.A stem cell that can become any body cell.

    The inner cell mass of a blastocyst is pluripotent.
  • Define "multipotent."
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.A stem cell that has partially differentiated but can still become multiple, related cell types.

    Umbilical cord stem cells are multipotent.
  • Define "totipotent."
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.A stem cell that can become any body cell (including placenta in placental mammals).

    A zygote is totipotent.
  • Contrast the characteristics of embryonic, umbilical cord and adult somatic stem cells.
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.Embryonic stem cells:the inner cell mass of an embryo can differentiate into any body cell (pluripotent)

    Umbilical stem cells:can only differentiate into blood cells (multipotent)

    Adult somatic stem cells:found in bone marrow, skin and liver, have limited differentiation ability (multipotent)
  • Explain why stem cells are most prevalent in the early embryonic development of a multi-cellular organism.
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.The cells of the early embryo are the most versatile because they have differentiated the least. As the embryo develops, the cells gradually become more differentiated.
  • List two key properties of stem cells that have made them on the active areas of research in biology and medicine today.
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.Stem cells can divide repeatedly:useful for treatment of tissues that have been killed or damaged because they can produce large numbers of identical cells.

    Stem cells are not differentiated:they have not "turned off" genes so they can still specialize to produce different cell types and a variety of different tissues.

    Because of these two key properties, stem cells are used in medical research and treatment of disease.
  • Define "embryo."
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.Early stages of development after the zygote divides.
  • Define "zygote."
    Understanding: The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.The cell that results from a sperm fertilizing an egg.
  • Describe the relationship between cell differentiation and gene expression.
    Understanding: Differentiation involves the expressions of some genes and not others in a cell.Differentiation in cells is due to different gene expression in different cell types.

    All cells in a multi-cellular organism contain the same genes, but different cells will express different genes.

    To express a gene means to "switch it on" so that the protein (or other gene product) is made.
  • Define "differentiation."
    Understanding: Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multi-cellular organisms.The development of specialized structures and functions in cells.
  • Outline the benefits of cell specialization in a multi-cellular organism.
    Understanding: Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multi-cellular organisms.By becoming specialized, cells can be more efficient in their role. They can have particular structures and metabolisms that maximize the function of the cell for a specific purpose.
  • Define "tissue."
    Understanding: Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multi-cellular organisms.A group of cells that specialized in the same way to perform the same function.
  • Provide an example of emergent properties at different hierarchical levels of life.
    Understanding: Multi-cellular organisms have properties that emerge due to the interaction of their cellular components.Heart cell --> emergent property of life

    Heart tissue --> emergent property of synchronized contractions

    Heart organ --> emergent property of being able to pump blood
  • Define "emergent property."

    Understanding: Multi-cellular organisms have properties that emerge due to the interaction of their cellular components.Characteristics and/or abilities that only arise from the interaction of the component parts of a structure.
  • Define and provide an example of a multi-cellular organism.
    Understanding: Multi-cellular organisms have properties that emerge due to the interaction of their cellular components.An organism composed of multiple cells.

    For example: turtle, oak tree, eagle.
  • Define and provide an example of a unicellular organism.

    Understanding: Multi-cellular organisms have properties that emerge due to the interaction of their cellular components.An organism composed of a single cell.

    For example: paramecium, amoeba and chlamydomonas.
  • Given the magnification of a micrograph or drawing, use a formula to calculate the actual size of a specimen.

    Skill: Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs.If you know the magnification of an image, you can determine the size of the specimen.

    Actual size = drawing size / drawing magnification
  • Use a formula to calculate the magnification of a micrograph or drawing.
    Skill: Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs.Drawing magnification indicates how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size.

    Drawing magnification = drawing size / actual size
  • State why the magnification of a drawing or micrograph is not the same as the magnification of the microscope.
    Skill: Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs.We draw structures much larger than the size we see them when viewed under a microscope. The image produced in the microscope is often much smaller than what is shown in a drawing.
  • Define "micrograph."

    Skill: Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs.A photograph taken through a microscope to show a magnified image of an item.
  • Demonstrate how to draw cell structures seen with a microscope using sharp, carefully joined lines and straight edge lines for labels.

    Skill: Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope.Drawing Materials: All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white, unlined paper. Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be corrected.

    Positioning: Center drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave plenty of room for the addition of labels.

    Size: Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.

    Labels: Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines. The labels should form a vertical list. All labels should be printed (not cursive).

    Technique: Lines are clear and not smudged. Avoid 'feathery' pencil lines and gaps. There are almost no erasures or stray marks on the paper. Color is used carefully to enhance the drawing. Stippling is used instead of shading.

    Accuracy: Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making "idealized"drawings. Do not necessarily draw everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for. Show only as much as necessary for an understanding of the structure - a small section shown in detail will often suffice. It is time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce accurately the entire contents of a microscopic field. When drawing low power plans do not draw individual cells. Show only the distribution of tissues. When making high power drawings, draw only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of walls, membranes, etc.

    Title: The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under (for example, phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is informative, centered, and larger than other text. The title should always include the scientific name (which is italicized or underlined).

    Scale: Include how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size and a labeled scale bar that indicates estimated size.
  • Outline how to focus the microscope on a sample.

    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.Place a slide on the stage so that it is centered under the objective lens.

    Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest power objective lens is "clicked" into position.

    While looking at the objective lens and the stage from the side, turn the coarse focus knob so that the stage moves upward toward the objectives. Move it as far as it will go without touching the slide.

    Look through the eyepiece and adjust the light source and diaphragm until you attain the maximum, comfortable level of light.

    Slowly turn the coarse adjustment so that the stage moves down (away from the slide). Continue until the image comes into broad focus. Then turn the fine adjustment knob, as necessary, for perfect focus.

    Move the microscope slide until the image is in the center of the field of view. Then re-adjust the light source or diaphragm in order to attain the clearest image.

    Once you have attained a clear image, you should be able to change to a higher power objective lens with only minimal use of the fine focus knob. If you cannot focus on your specimen, repeat the above steps and work from objective to objective until the higher power objective lens is in place.
  • Outline how to estimate the size of a sample in the microscope field of view.
    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.Estimate the fraction of the field of view that the object occupies.

    Multiply the FOV diameter by that estimated fraction.

    For example: the paramecium takes up about 2/3 of the FOV diameter. If I know the size of the field of view is 5 mm, I can then estimate the size of the paramecium: (2/3)*5mm = 3.3 mm
  • What is the formula for calculating the field of view diameter of a microscope under medium or high power?
    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.If you know the diameter of the FOV at one magnification, you can determine the diameter of FOV at another magnification with the following formula:

    Diameter of FOV#2 = diameter of FOV#1 x magnification#1 divided by magnification#2
  • Outline how to determine the diameter of a field of view using low power magnification.
    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.Place a transparent metric ruler under the low power objective of a microscope.

    Focus the microscope on the scale of the ruler, and measure the diameter of the field of vision in millimeters.
  • Define "field of view."

    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.The diameter of the area visible through the microscope.
  • Calculate the total microscope magnification.
    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.Multiply the magnifying power of the ocular by the magnifying power of the objective lens that you are using.
  • Define "magnification."
    Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.How much larger an object appears compared to its real size.