7: Psychopathology

• Statistical infrequency


  Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare such as having very high IQ but fails to account for behaviour that is statiscally rare but desirable
• Deviation from social norms


  Does not recognise some eccentric behaviours and sometimes abormal behaviours might be seen as normal in other cultures
• Norms


  Vary over time so behaviour defined as abnormal in one era may no longer be abnormal in another.

  Eg.homosexuality
• Failure to function adequately

  Unable to fulfil social and occupational roles

  
  

  For example causing observer discomfort,behaving unpredictably and showing maladaptive behaviours.
• AO3 point 1: coping

  Individual may cope well with their disorders

  They might not meet criteria for this definition
• AO3 point 2: observer discomfort


  Observer discomfort: if you claim to be hearing voices in this country people may feel uncomfortable and consider your behaviour as maladaptive

  
  

  Eg. East Burma tribes people who believe hearing voices is talking to the gods
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  Defines abnormality for saying what should be present for ideal mental health eg.resistant to stress, optimal wellbeing,personal growth and being autonomous
• 3 phobias


  Arachnophobia

  Emetophobia

  Claustrophobia
• Phobia definition


  An anxiety disorder characterised by extreme irrational fears, out of proportion to any actual risk.

  
  

  10% of 100 people suffer

  
  

  The fear caused a phobia leads to avoidance and disruption of everyday life
• Behavioural symptoms of phobias

  Panic

  Avoidance
• Emotional symptoms of phobias

  Anxiety

  Emotional responses are unreasonable
• Cognitive symptoms of phobias

  Irrational beliefs which have little basis in fact.
• Two process model (acquisition)

  Acquisition: thought to happen via classical conditioning a natural response that causes fear to become associated with neutral stimulus then the neutral stimulus by itself causes a fear response
• Two process model (maintenance)

  Happens via operant conditioning

  Avoiding or escaping from a feared situation acts as a negative reinforcer

  This reinforces the avoidance response (makes it more likely to occur again)
• Acquisition


  Thought to happen via classical conditioning

  
  

  Natural response that causes fear to become associated with neutral stimulus

  
  

  Neutral stimulus causes fear response
• Maintenance


  Happens via operant conditioning

  
  

  Avoiding for escaping from a feared situation acts as a negative reinforcer

  
  

  This reinforces the avoidance response and makes it more likely to occur again
• Watson and Rayner (1920) - Little Albert

  Classically conditioned 11 month old little Albert by hitting a metal rod behind head to make loud noise when seeing the white rat. Gave him the phobia of white and fluffy things. We know that he had no fear before as he played with rat happily prior to research. Many ethical issues related such as the harm and impact it had on little Albert
• King (1998) children case studies

  Reported that case studies showed that children tended to acquire strong phobias through a traumatic experience

  
  

  Further supports the idea of phobias being acquired through conditioning
• A NEGATIVE POINT of two process model

  An incomplete explanation of phobias even if we accept that classical and operant conditioning are involved with the development and maintenance of phobias there's aspects of phobias that need further explanation- the two process model ignores cognitive factors- a simplified version of
• Addendum- what happened to little Albert?

  Died in 2007

  Showed that classical conditioning is possible in humans
• Strength-depression-good practical applications


  Cognitive aspects can be identified and challenged

  
  

  Negative triad- easily accessible

  
  

  Encourages patient to test wether beliefs are true

  
  

  Forms basis of CBT and is a successful treatment
• Strength-depression-concentrates on present


  Concentrating on current thoughts is more beneficial BUT it could be a traumatic experience in the past eg. Abuse that needs to be addressed
• Weakness-depression-negative thinking is not always irrational

  It is not a realistic view to see the world optimistically

  
  

  Depression is a logical response to negative life events
• Weakness-depression-blames individual


  Blame faulty cognitions rather than environment, this could make the disorder worse and is unfair
• Strength-treating depression-few side effects long term benefit

  CBT when used appropriately it can be effective and life changing

  
  

  However, some people prefer the antidepressants as it is a quicker treatment and relapse rates are high therefore CBT needs to be repeated periodically
• Strength- treating depression-large amount of evidence

  March et al. 2007 compared effects of cbt with antidepressant drugs and the therapy.

  
  

  81% in cbt group

  81% antidepressant group

  86% cbt+antidepressant

  
  

  This shows that CBT is a successful treatment alongside the use of drugs there is a significant effect.
• Weakness-treating depression-may not work for everyone

  A better more holistic treatment would be antidepressant drugs for severe depression

  
  

  CBT isn't suitable for patients such as people with learning disabilities and extreme mental health problems such as schizophrenia as it is more of a talking therapy.
• Weakness-treating depression-overemphasis on present cognitions

  The focus in cbt is on the present and future

  
  

  Some patients are aware of the link between childhood experiences and depression and want to talk about their past, they can find the present focus every frustrating-

  
  

  cbt is a talking therapy and therefore would not work for that range of people.
• Cognitive behavioural therapy


  Cognitive- identify irrational and negative thoughts

  Behavioural- work to change negative and irrational thoughts and put more effective behaviours in place

  Initial assessment and goal setting
• Becks cognitive therapy


  Self, world and future (negative triad)

  
  

  The therapist will help the patient identify and challenge automatic negative thoughts

  
  

  They have to test the reality of their negative beliefs- this can be done through homework

  
  

  Eg. Recording when you enjoy an event
• Ellis' rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT)

  Extends ABC model

  D- dispute

  E- effect

  
  

  A rebt therapist would identify these and dispute the irrational beliefs through a vigorous argument

  
  

  Patients are asked to reinterpret their abc and practice positive and optimistic thinking
• Depression is caused by...

  Irrational/ negative thought processes and perceptions and faulty maladaptive cognitions
• Ellis' ABC model


  Ellis proposed good mental health is a result of rational thinking

  
  

  Healthy cognitions- normal behaviour

  
  

  Faulty cognitions- abnormal behaviour

  
  

  Activating event

  Beliefs

  Consequence
• Cognitive error


  Distorted irrational thought processes that emphasise negative influence of emotions and behaviours
• Automatic negative thoughts


  Being pessimistic and having unrealistic expectations without thinking
• Overgeneralisation


  Conclusions based on one event
• self-fulfilling prophecy


  They label themselves as depressed and fulfill this by showing the behaviour
• Magnification and minimisation


  Overemphasising failures and looking over the successes