3.2 transport in animals

• Arteries – adapted to carrying blood away from the heart to the rest of the body, thick walled to withstand high blood pressure, contain elastic tissue which allows them to stretch and recoil thus smoothing blood flow, contain smooth muscle which enables them to vary blood flow, lined with smooth endothelium to reduce friction and ease flow of blood
• • Arterioles – branch off arteries, have thinner and less muscular walls, their role is to feed blood into capillaries
• • Capillaries – smallest blood vessels, site of metabolic exchange, only one cell thick for fast exchange of substances
• • Venules – larger than capillaries but smaller than veins
• • Veins – carry blood from the body to the heart, contain a wide lumen to maximise volume of blood carried to the heart, thin walled as blood is under low pressure, contain valves to prevent backflow of blood, no pulse of blood meaning there’s little elastic tissue or smooth muscle as there is no need for stretching and recoiling
• Circulatory systems can either be open, for instance in insects or closed, like in fish and mammals where the blood is confined to blood vessels only. Closed circulatory systems come in two forms, either a single form which consists of a heart with two chambers meaning the blood passes through the heart once for every circuit of the body or double, where the heart has four chambers and blood passes through the heart twice for every circuit of the body.
• Tissue fluid is a liquid containing dissolved oxygen and nutrients which serves as a means of supplying the tissues with the essential solutes in exchange for waste products such as carbon dioxide. Therefore, it enables exchange of substances between blood and cells.
• Hydrostatic pressure is created when blood is pumped along the arteries, into arterioles and then capillaries. This pressure forces blood fluid out of the capillaries. Only substances which are small enough to escape through the gaps in the capillary wall are components of the tissue fluid – this includes dissolved nutrients and oxygen. The fluid is referred to as tissue fluid
• The tissue fluid is also acted on by osmotic pressure which pushes some of the fluid back into the capillaries. As both the tissue fluid and blood contain solutes, they have a negative water potential. Although the potential of the tissue fluid is negative, it is less negative in comparison to the blood (the blood contains more solutes). Therefore, the tissue fluid is positive in comparison to the blood. This causes water to move down the water potential gradient from the tissue fluid to the blood by osmosis.
• The remaining tissue fluid which is not pushed back into the capillaries is carried back via the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system contains lymph fluid, similar in content to tissue fluid. However, lymph fluid contains less oxygen and nutrients compared to tissue fluid, as its main purpose is to carry waste products. The lymph system also contains lymph nodes which filter out bacteria and foreign material from the fluid with the help of lymphocytes which destroy the invaders as part of the immune system defences.
• There are 3 stages of the cardiac cycle:

  1) Atrial systole – during atrial systole the atria contract and this forces the atrio-ventricular valves open and blood flows into the ventricles.
• There are 3 stages of the cardiac cycle:

  2) Ventricular systole – contraction of the ventricles causes the atrio-ventricular valves to close and semi-lunar valves to open thus allowing blood to leave the left ventricle through the aorta and right ventricle through the pulmonary artery.
• There are 3 stages of the cardiac cycle:

  3) Cardiac diastole – atria and ventricles relax, elastic recoil of the heart lowers the pressure inside the heart chambers and blood is drawn from the arteries and veins thus causing semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary arteries to close, preventing backflow of blood.
• Due to the heart’s ability to initiate its own contraction, it is referred to as myogenic.
• stages of heart contraction

  1)In the wall of the right atrium there is a region of specialised fibres called the sinoatrial node which is the pacemaker of the heart, as it initiates a wave of electrical stimulation which causes the atria to contract at roughly the same time.
• stages of heart contraction

  2) The ventricles do not start contracting until the atria have finished due to the presence of tissue at the base of the atria which is unable to conduct the wave of excitation.
• stages of heart contraction

  3) The electrical wave eventually reaches the atrioventricular node located between the two atria which passes on the excitation to ventricles, down the bundle of His to the apex of the heart.
• stages of heart contaction

  4)The bundle of His branches into Purkyne fibres which carry the wave upwards. This causes the ventricles to contract, thus emptying them.
• Haemoglobin

  Haemoglobin is a water soluble globular protein which consists of two alpha and two beta polypeptide chains each containing a haem group. It carries oxygen in the blood as oxygen can bind to the haem (Fe2+) group and oxygen is then released when required. Each molecule can carry four oxygen molecules.
• Haemoglobin

  The affinity of oxygen for haemoglobin varies depending on the partial pressure of oxygen which is a measure of oxygen concentration. The greater the concentration of dissolved oxygen in cells the greater the partial pressure. Therefore, as partial pressure increases, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases, that is oxygen binds to haemoglobin tightly. This occurs in the lungs in the process known as loading.
• haemoglobin

  Dissociation curves illustrate the change in haemoglobin saturation as partial pressure changes. The saturation of haemoglobin is affected by its affinity for oxygen, therefore in the case where partial pressure is high, haemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen and is therefore highly saturated, and vice versa. Saturation can also have an effect on affinity, as after binding to the first oxygen molecule, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases due to a change in shape, thus making it easier for the other oxygen molecules to bind.
• heamoglobin

  Fetal haemoglobin has a different affinity for oxygen compared to adult haemoglobin, as in needs to be better at absorbing oxygen because by the time oxygen reaches the placenta, the oxygen saturation of the blood has decreased. Therefore, fetal haemoglobin must have a higher affinity for oxygen in order for the foetus to survive at low partial pressure.
• heamoglobin

  The affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is also affected by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is released by respiring cells which require oxygen for the process to occur. Therefore, in the presence of carbon dioxide, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen decreases, thus causing oxygen to be released. This is known as the Bohr effect.