psychological problems

• What is (unipolar) depression?


  A mood disorder causing periods of feeling sad and lacking motivation to do everyday activities.
• List 5 symptoms of depression.

  Not enjoying activities you used to. Feeling suicidal or attempting suicide. Lack of self-esteem. Poor appetite / increased appetite. Extreme tiredness not relieved by sleep. Poor sleep.
• What aspects of modern living might be contributing to more people getting depression?

  Social media...comparing yourself to others online could lead to lack of self-esteem, poor sleep, feelings of guilt or blaming yourself for problems.
• Describe some ways depression affects individuals with the illness.

  Increased risk of suicide (10-15% of people with extreme depression commit suicide). Lack of motivation. Extreme tiredness. Poor sleep.
• Describe some ways depression affects society.

  It costs the government a lot of money (approx. £1.7 billion per year) to treat people with depression. This money has to be raised through taxes.
• What is addiction?


  A mental health problem that means people need a particular thing - a substance or activity - in order to be able to avoid negative feelings and go about their normal routine.
• List 5 symptoms of addiction.

  A feeling that you need to take a substance / continue the activity. Finding it difficult to stop or reduce the use of the substance / the activity. Physical withdrawal symptoms (shaking, sweating, vomiting). Increasing tolerance of the substance / the activity. Replacing normal, fun activities with time spend using the substance / doing the activity. Ignoring evidence that the use of the substance / the activity is harmful.
• What are the most common addictions in the UK?

  Heroin, alcohol, nicotine.
• How can addiction affect someone's quality of life?

  They may end up ignoring their family, having problems at work, spending more and more of their money on their addiction.
• Describe some ways addiction affects society.

  Someone with an addiction may not be able to go a long time without taking the substance / doing the activity, making them unable to work. If lots of people cannot work, this can damage the nation's economy.
• What are genes?


  Stretches of DNA that determine how your body develops.
• Explain how twin studies can provide evidence for genes being a cause of depression (refer to MZ / DZ twins and concordance rates).

  Twin studies have found that there is a higher concordance rate (probability that two people have the same disorder) for depression amongst monozygotic twins (share 100% same DNA) than dizygotic twins (share 50% same DNA). That identical twins are more likely to both have depression might mean their genes are partly to blame.
• How does the Diathesis Stress Model explain depression?

  Somebody might have inherited a particular gene which predisposes them to get depression (makes it more likely they will get depression) but this gene has to be triggered, or switched on, by stressful life events. A mix of nature factors (genes) and nurture factors (life events).
• What evidence did McGuffin (1996) find, supporting the genetic explanation (refer to concordance rates)?

  That if one MZ twin became depressed there was a 46% chance that their co twin would become depressed (concordance rate 46%). Also that if one DZ twin became depressed there was a 20% chance that their co twin would become depressed (concordance rate 20%).
• Why does McGuffin's evidence not totally support the genetic explanation of depression?

  If genes were the only cause of depression, then you would expect the concordance rate for MZ twins to be 100% - if they have the same genes and one of these genes causes depression, if one twin has depression then this must mean the other will get it too. Because it is only 46%, this must mean environmental factors also play a role in depression.
• What is a strength of the genetic explanation of depression?

  If genes can explain depression, then this may take away the stigma of being diagnosed with depression. This avoids blaming the person for being depressed.
• Why is the genetic explanation of depression 'reductionist'?

  Because it ignores other factors that can explain depression, such as stressful life events (e.g. a death in the family).
• Why is the genetic explanation of depression 'deterministic'?

  Because it assumes that if you have certain genes you will become depressed. Others believe we have free will and choice over whether we become depressed.
• What is 'cognitive theory'?

  The theory that behaviour can be explained by how we think.
• Referring to explanations of depression, what is Beck's 'negative triad'?

  A set of 3 negative thought patterns, about the self, future and world.
• Give two examples of 'cognitive biases' someone with depression might demonstrate.

  Overgeneralisation (drawing sweeping conclusions based on single incidents). Magnification (seeing problems as far worse than they are).
• Why can't post-natal depression be explained very well by cognitive theory?

  Post-natal depression can be explained better by changes in levels of certain hormones in the body.
• How does the cognitive theory suggest that people have some free will over whether they develop depression? Is this a strength or weakness of this explanation?


  Because it says depression is caused by our thought process, which we can control (free-will). This can be considered a strength; it suggests people have the ability to change and overcome depression.
• One criticism of the cognitive explanation of depression is the 'chicken and egg dilemma'. What does this mean?

  That it is difficult to tell whether irrational thoughts are a cause of depression or a symptom of being depressed.
• The cognitive explanation has led to which useful treatment for depression being developed?

  CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy).
• What does C B T stand for?

  Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.
• What are the two aims of CBT when treating depression?

  1) To help the patient change the way they think. 2) To help the patient change the way they act, to improve the symptoms they are having.
• What are the 3 stages of CBT when treating depression?

  1) Patient discusses their symptoms with the therapist. 2) The therapist helps the patient challenge their irrational and negative thoughts. 3) Patients are then taught and practise more rational and positive thought processes.
• What evidence did the NHS publish to suggest CBT is an effective treatment when combined with their previous treatment?

  They found depressed patients improved more when given CBT alongside antidepressant drugs.
• How does Beltman's study support the use of CBT as a treatment for depression?

  He found depressed patients treated with CBT improved more than those who were still waiting for treatment or not receiving any treatment.
• Describe a strength of CBT treament for depression?

  It may be a longer lasting treatment for depression than using drugs. Patients develop skills they can use in future.
• Why are there potential ethical issues with CBT treatment for depression?

  CBT may be emotionally difficult to participate in (protection of participants) - patients may be unhappy to be told their thoughts are irrational.
• Why might CBT be ineffective for depressed people?

  It relies on patients wanting to change their behaviour; yet, a symptom of depression is a lack of motivation.
• Name the neurotransmitter thought to be linked to depression.

  Serotonin.
• How is serotonin linked to developing depression?

  A lack of serotonin in the brain is thought to be a cause (or symptom) of depression.
• One type of anti-depressant drug are SSRIs. What does SSRI stand for?

  Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors.
• How do SSRIs work? How do they help ease the symptoms of depression?

  They stop serotonin being re-uptaken into the pre-synaptic neuron, leaving more serotonin in the synapse for longer.
• Describe (a) two strengths and (b) two weaknesses of anti-depressant drugs as a treatment for depression.

  A) They can improve a person's symptoms enough to make it easier for them to benefit from CBT. Also, research shows approx. 65% of depressed patients show improvements when given antidepressants. B) Unlike CBT, drugs do not address the causes of depression, such as faulty thinking patterns. Also, they have unpleasant side effects, such as drowsiness, insomnia and even suicidal feelings.
• What were the 2 aims of Caspi's study?

  1) To see why stressful experiences lead to depression in some people but not others. 2) To investigate the role of the '5-HTT gene', to see if it contributed to depression.
• What was the sample size in Caspi's study?

  847 people.