development

• Where are the following areas located in the brain? Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain, Cerebellum, Medulla.

  Forebrain: the anterior (front) of the brain. Midbrain: the middle of the brain, connecting to the central nervous system. Hindbrain: lower part of the brain containing the cerebellum and and medulla oblongata. Cerebellum: at the back of the brain near the brain stem. Medulla: connects the spinal cord to the upper brain.
• When do each of these brain areas develop in a foetus? Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain, Cerebellum, Medulla.

  Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain: all begin developing when a foetus is approx. 3-4 weeks old. Cerebellum: begins developing when the foetus is approx. 6 weeks old. Medulla: forms by the time a foetus is 20 weeks old.
• What are the functions (jobs) of each of these brain areas? Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain, Cerebellum, Medulla.

  Forebrain: responsibility for a range of processes, including higher order functions of human beings (e.g. thinking skills). Midbrain: linked with sensory information, sleep and simple movement. Hindbrain: controls most basic human functions - for example, heart rate, coordination and facial expressions. Cerebellum: manages motor commands sent to/from the nervous system - for example, balance and the acquisition of motor skills such as crawling, walking, running. Medulla: responsible for the nervous system's control of bodily functions, such as sneezing, breathing and blood pressure.
• At what age are children in the sensorimotor stage?

  Birth to age 2.
• At the sensorimotor stage, how do children get information about the world around them?

  Via their senses.
• At the sensorimotor stage, children develop object permanence - what does this mean?


  They learn that objects still exist, even when they cannot see them.
• At what age are children in the pre-operational stage?

  Age 2-7.
• Children in the pre-operational stage engage in 'symbolism' - what is this?


  They use one object to represent different objects.
• In the pre-operational stage, children can only see the world from their own perspective - what is this known as?

  Egocentrism.
• In the pre-operational stage, children display 'animism', which means what?

  They might believe that objects are alive.
• Because children in the pre-operational stage have not yet developed 'conservation' in this stage, what can they not do?


  They do not understand that if you change how something looks, this doesn't necessarily mean the size or volume has changed.
• At what age are children in the concrete operational stage?

  Age 7-12.
• Children in the concrete operational stage begin to realise that actions can be reversed to change something to its original state - what is this called?

  Reversibility.
• Children in the concrete operational stage develop 'conservation' - what does this mean they now understand?

  They will know that to change the appearance of something doesn't necessarily mean it has changed in size or volume.
• Are children still egocentric in the concrete operational stage? What can they now do, and what is this called?

  During this stage, children overcome egocentrism and develop decentration - they are able to see the world from other people's perspectives, as well as their own.
• At what age do children reach the formal operational stage?

  Age 12.
• What can children in formal operational stage of development do?

  Manipulate complex or hypothetical thoughts and ideas, and think about two or more complex ideas at once.
• What was the aim of Piaget and Inhelder's study?


  To study the perspectives of children and investigate relationships between the child's viewpoint and their perception of the viewpoint of others.
• What was the size of Piaget and Inhelder's sample?

  100 children.
• In what two ways did Piaget and Inhelder test the children's ability to see the model mountains from the perspective of the doll?


  They were (a) asked to arrange a set of boards to represent what they could see and then what the doll could see, and (b) select appropriate photographs to represent what they could see and what the doll could see.
• In Piaget and Inhelder's study, how many photographs were the children given, to select the viewpoint of the doll from?

  10
• What were Piaget and Inhelder's two key findings, or results?

  Most children aged 4-6 could only communicate their own viewpoint, and not that of the doll. Children between 9-12 years old had mastered the skill of communicating their own viewpoint and that of the doll.
• What were Piaget and Inhelder's two conclusions based on their study?

  Children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric. Most children in the concrete-operational stage have overcome egocentrism (they have experienced decentration).
• Why is it a strength that Piaget and Inhelder gathered detailed, qualitative data on the children?


  Qualitative data tends to be in-depth, meaning it is likely to provide a valid picture of the children's behaviour.
• Why is it a strength of Piaget and Inhelder's study that the children were shown the same model and were asked the same questions?

  This meant a standardised procedure was follwed. The data was therefore collected in a consistent, and thus reliable (trustworthy) way.
• Explain one weakness of Piaget and Inhelder's research.

  Other studies using more realistic (everyday life) scenarios did not give the same findings. Borke (1975) used a similar model of 3 mountains but the model could be turned and she used a puppet character that the children were familiar with. In her less difficult and more familiar task 93% of 4 years could take the view of others (ie not egocentric).
• What is a 'schema'?

  A mental structure around which people build their knowledge and understanding.
• What is it called when we can fit new information into our existing schemas?

  Assimilation.
• What is it called when we need to change our existing schemas, or create new schemas, in order to make sense of new information?

  Accomodation.
• Regarding Piaget's theory of schemas, what is meant by 'equilibrium'?


  A state of mental balance, ocurring when a child is able to fit new information into an existing schema.
• Why can Piaget's theory of learning be described as 'reductionist'?

  Because he did not look at the influence of social interaction and culture on children's ability to complete cognitive tasks at certain ages.
• Why might the findings of Piaget's research not be reliable?

  Because Piaget's data came from interviews and observations of children. His interpretation of their behaviour may have been subjective.
• Why might Piaget's research lack ecological validity?

  Because Piaget's observations of children took place in artificial settings, rather than in everyday life settings, such as classrooms or playgrounds.
• What is a fixed mindset?

  When someone believes their ability is a fixed trait and cannot be developed or improved.
• What is a growth mindset?

  Where someone believes that their basic abilities can be developed through effort.
• How do people with fixed and growth mindsets view 'effort' and 'ability' differently?


  Those with a fixed mindset see ability as fixed and effort as pointless, given ability can't be changed. Those with a growth mindset see effort as valuable, as effort can be used to improve ability.
• What is a strength of Dweck's mindset theory?

  The theory suggests that people have 'free-will' - the ability to change their life through their own efforts.
• What is a weakness of Dweck's mindset theory?

  Studying the mindset of a child may result in the child becoming the focus if there are problems with their progress, rather than the quality of what is being taught and how teaching is done.
• What is the difference between 'person praise' and 'process praise'?

  Process praise - praising effort rather than ability (e.g. "well done, you worked really hard"). Person praise - praising a child personally (e.g. "well done, you're a really clever boy").
• What is the difference between an 'entity motivational framework' and an 'incremental motivational framework'?

  Entity motivational framework: ability is seen as fixed, similar to a fixed mindset. Incremental motivational framework: ability is seen as changeable, similar to a growth midnset.