Lesson 6: Civilizations in the Near East and Africa

• The Twin Rivers of Mesopotamia, the Tigris and the Euphrates, were important factors in the development of the earliest communities in the Near East.
• Irrigation ensured a highly productive agricultural lifestyle in the communities along the rivers, resulting in increased populations within the farming communities.
• At around 3500 BCE, Uruk emerged as an advanced city, signaling the start of the Urban Revolution, which was the emergence of the various city-states from simple and agrarian communities within Mesopotamia.
• After the fall of Ur to the Elamites, several rival kingdoms struggled for control over Mesopotamia
• Babylon emerged as a new power in the region during the Old Babylonian Period (2004 to 1595 BCE)
• Hammurabi united the warring factions in southern and central Mesopotamia during his reign from 1792 to 1750 BCE
• Hammurabi used military conquest and diplomacy to subdue his enemies and placed all conquered territories under his firm control
• Hammurabi is known for the Code of Hammurabi, a code of laws he promulgated throughout the Babylonian Empire
• The Code of Hammurabi was discovered in 1901 in Iran, engraved on a black basalt stele
• The code consists of 283 clauses covering various topics, from the settlement of debts to punishment for adultery
• One example from the code is: "If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out"
• After Hammurabi's death in 1750 BCE, the Babylonian empire went into a period of decline
• Rebellion and fighting among the city-states led to the destruction of several cities, including the once-powerful city of Ur
• The Babylonian empire fell to the Hittites, a warlike people from Anatolia (modern Turkey)
• The most astounding of the structures of the city was the famous Ishtar Gate, which was richly decorated with blue-glazed bricks adorned with relief figures of lions and bulls. The gate was part of the inner walls of the city which led to the great Temple of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, and the ziggurat.
• Under the leadership of Cyrus, the Persians defeated Babylon in 539 BCE and Lydia in 546 BCE
• Cyrus became the first ruler of the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire
• By the time of Cyrus' death in 530 BCE, the Persian Empire extended from Asia Minor up to the Indus Valley
• Darius I ruled from 521 to 486 BCE
• During Darius I's rule, the Persian Empire reached its greatest expansion, conquering Thrace and Macedon, and invading Scythia and Greece in Europe
• The Persian capital of Persepolis was built during Darius I's reign, embodying significant aspects of Achaemenid's rule
• One notable monument within Persepolis was the Gate of All Nations, symbolizing all the subject peoples of the empire
• The Achaemenid rulers divided their vast territory into provinces called satrapies, each under the authority of a governor or satrap
• The satraps were representatives of the king and ruled in his name, tasked with maintaining peace and order, overseeing bureaucracy, collecting tributes, and rendering final judgment
• An official from the royal court, known as "the eye of the King," conducted regular inspections of the satrapies to ensure proper governance throughout the empire
• Zoroastrianism was introduced during the reign of the Achaemenids, simplifying the pantheon of old gods and introducing the concept of two great opposing forces: Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu or Ahriman
• Zoroastrianism gained popularity throughout the empire and became the official religion of the state, while other religions were freely practiced
• Darius died in 486 BCE after the Persian Army was repelled by the Greek city-states during the First Persian War
• Darius left behind the Behistun Inscription, a monumental account of his reign inscribed on a rock face of Mount Behistun in western Iran, written in cuneiform in three languages: Elamite, Babylonian, and Persian
• Around 1000 BCE, the Israelites became prominent in the region
• By 900 BCE, the Israelites established the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
• The Israelites introduced a monotheistic religion which became the basis for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
• Accounts of the earliest tribes and kingdoms of the Israelites form the major part of the Old Testament, Torah, and Qur'an
• As Israelite kingdoms emerged in the Levant, the Phoenicians gained prominence in regional trade
• Phoenician settlements were established along the coast of Lebanon, including the cities of Tyre and Sidon
• In 800 BCE, the Phoenicians established settlements around the coastal regions of the Mediterranean in Northern Africa, Spain, and Sicily
• The Phoenicians were expert seafarers and traders
• The Phoenicians introduced a writing system that gained wide acceptance in the Near East and the Mediterranean
• The Phoenician alphabet was sound-based and easier to use than cuneiform
• The Phoenician alphabet was assimilated into several languages and scripts, giving rise to the modern alphabet and its variants