lesson 3 - ethics

• Ethics is the moral code that guides how an individual should behave
• Ethics deals with moral principles
• Ethics is also about the individual's search for meaning while dealing with human problems
• Human problems may be logical (problems of reasoning), epistemological (problems of the truth), cosmological (problems of universe), ethical (problems of morality), aesthetical (problems of art and beauty), or scientific problems (problems of science)
• Making sense of the human existence throughout history has brought about many developments in the study of ethics
• Human beings are logical beings but human existence is inexplicable
• For Donal Harrington, morality can be viewed in different perspectives - as law, as an inner conviction, as love, as personal growth, and as social transformation
• There are also nuances between ethics and morality as illustrated by James Gustafson
• Ethics is the theoretical prescriptions/critiques that is the nature of the good, the nature of human person, and criteria of judgement
• Morality is based on principles practiced by a particular community. It is a fundamental conviction of human agent, a character of moral agent, a use of norms, and a situational analysis
• Ethical relativism, also known as moral relativism, is a school of ethics anchored on the principle that morality is relative to the norms of a particular culture. It is a theory based on norms relative to a particular culture or society
• Ethical Relativism acknowledges social diversity
• Ethical Pragmatism is a philosophical approach or movement that began in the 1870s
• The term pragmatism was coined by Charles Sanders Peirce and further developed by William James
• Ethical Pragmatism is considered as America's most distinctive and major contribution to the field of philosophy
• Ethical Pragmatism is a theory on knowledge, truth, and meaning rather than morality
• A pragmatic conception of good and truth can be applied in the medical context especially in terms of decision making and moral reasoning
• Ethical Utilitarianism was founded by two English Philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
• Ethical Utilitarianism states that the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by their consequences
• The principle of utility formulated by Mill states that "actions are good insofar as they tend to promote happiness, bad as they tend to produce unhappiness. The utility or usefulness of an action is determined by the extent to which it promotes happiness than its reserve"
• Abortion is considered illegal in the Philippines as stated in Article II, Section 12 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
• Article II, Section 12 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states that "the State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception"
• Abortion can be direct, induced, or even caused by natural cases or accidents. In some cases, it can be necessary when the life of the mother is at stake
• For anti-abortion groups, abortion is the ultimate violation of life for it is the act of killing an individual that is not yet able to speak for himself or herself
• For those who support abortion, they believe that pregnant women, especially victims of rape, should be given the chance to decide for themselves
• Euthanasia (mercy killing) is the practice of ending a life intentionally, usually in situations when the individual is terminally ill, to relieve them of pain and suffering
• Euthanasia is considered as a merciful release of an individual from an incurable sickness
• Herbert Hendin (2004) describes euthanasia as the process of inducing the painless death of a person who is severely debilitated for reasons assumed to be merciful, either through voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary means
• Voluntary euthanasia is when an individual gives consent to subject themselves to a painless death
• Non-voluntary euthanasia is when the permission of the patient to perform the process is unavailable. For instance, they are in deep comatose, or neonates born with significant and major birth defects
• Involuntary Euthanasia is when the individual does not give his or her consent
• Euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain and all six states of Australia
• Genetic Engineering involves genetic manipulations that are perceived to be against moral standards set by the society
• Genetic Screening is a procedure whose main purpose is to screen, choose, and select genes for proper detection of any genetic disease and other chromosomal malformations. It is usually done for the early diagnosis of diseases
• Genetic Interventions are techniques such as genetic control, therapy, and surgery. Ciabal (2003) states that people can now 'intervene' in the biological process and 'control' bad or defective genes
• Stem-cell Therapy makes use of stem cells to treat or prevent diseases. It has been a subject of controversy because of how stem cells are sourced.
• In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is popularly known as laboratory fertilization. This technology became the subject of controversies because of many religious groups opposing the procedure as they perceive it to be a deviation from natural process of fertilization
• Diversity, decision making, compliance, and governance are some of the concerns that need to be considered when doing an ethical review in the context of the health care profession
• Professional ethics covers the morally accepted behavior of individuals in the workplace
• The code of ethics of a particular profession serves as the guiding principle in the ethical practice of profession