history of physio

• First brain surgery (trephination) took place around 7000 BCE during Neolithic times
• Chinese Shen Nung originated acupuncture around 2700 BCE based on Yin-Yang philosophy
• Around 3,300 years ago, the brain was not considered important part of the body, as seen in the mummified remains of Tutankhamen
• The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in 1700 BCE, describes 28 cases of brain, skull, and spinal injuries
• Plato identified mind in the brain, while Aristotle believed the mind was in the heart
• Hippocrates believed that all illnesses, including mental illnesses, had physical origins and studied brain-injured patients
• Aelius Galenus echoed Hippocrates' belief on the physiological basis for mental disorders and postulated an imbalance of bodily humors
• Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi criticized Galen's theory on bodily humors and described cranial and spinal nerves
• Al-Zahrawi described surgical treatments for neurological disorders and wrote a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices
• Rene Descartes theorized dualism, with the body as the physical entity and mind as the spiritual entity
• Franz Joseph Gall introduced phrenology, emphasizing separate functional areas in the cerebral cortex
• Johann Kaspar Spuzheiem and George Combe popularized phrenology laid the basic principles of phrenology, emphasizing the importance of the brain in mental powers analysis
• Johannes Peter Muller proposed that the nature of a sensation depends on which sensory fibers are stimulated
• Hermann von Helmholtz measured nerve conduction speed and researched vision physiology
• Marie Jean Pierre Flourens conducted brain ablation experiments, proving that the mind is located in the brain
• Camillo Golgi developed staining methods to visualize individual nerve cells
• Paul Broca discovered Broca's area related to speech production in the brain
• Carl Wernicke identified the speech comprehension area in the brain and described various aphasias
• Korbinian Brodman divided the brain into distinct areas and delineated their roles in behavioral function
• Karl Spencer Lashley showed that behaviors like learning and memory were not localized in specific brain regions
• Roger Sperry discovered brain lateralization through experiments on left and right brain hemispheric specialization
• Mortimer Mishkin studied the biology of memory and neurobiological mechanisms underlying learning and memory in primates
• Christof Koch is known for his work on the neural bases of consciousness and promotes the study of consciousness through modern neurobiology tools
• • Pharmacological Methods: giving drugs to observe effects
  • Genetic Methods: deleting genes in animals, studying people with naturally occurring deletions, or tracing gene differences between people with different behaviors
• Diverse research methods used in Biological Psychology:

  • Histology: studying brain tissues, often staining tissue to see structure and connections
  • Autopsy: studying brain structure after someone is dead
  • Lesion: damaging part of the brain to observe organism's response and abilities
  • Imaging: studying the working brain with noninvasive techniques to observe blood or glucose use/patterns/density of tissues
  • Recording: using electrodes to directly measure electrical brain activity
  • Stimulation: pushing electricity into a cell/brain area to observe organism's response
• Histology:

  • Tissue must be fixed by freezing or formalin and sliced thinly by a microtome
  • Stains are applied to highlight structures of interest
• Lesion:

  • Lesions may be naturally occurring or artificially produced
  • Artificially produced lesions can be done by heating the tips of surgically implanted electrodes or using chemicals that kill cell bodies
  • Lesions can also be temporarily produced by cooling an area of the brain
• Imaging:

  • Mostly noninvasive techniques like x-rays, CAT, MRI to study the working brain
  • Observes blood or glucose use/patterns/density of tissues for structure and function
• Genetic Methods:

  • Twin Studies:
  • Monozygotic (identical) twins develop from one zygote and are genetically identical
  • Dizygotic (fraternal) twins develop from two separate eggs and sperm
  • Concordance rates measure the probability that two people with shared genes will develop the same organic disease
  • Genetically Modified Animals have altered genetic material by adding, changing, or removing DNA sequences
  • Knockout Genes are genes that have been removed or inactivated from an organism's genome