PAPER 1

• interviewed witnesses to a staged event of an armed robbery in the police station car park a few hours earlier.

  . The results showed NO BENEFITS of cognitive interviewing over standard interviewing in terms of the number of correct or incorrect answers.

  
  

  -Some elements may be more valuable than others...Milne and Bull (2002)

  .Found that each technique of the CI alone produced more information than the standard police interview. Found combining report everything & reinstate original context produced better recall than anything else. Casts doubt on credibility of CI as some parts are less effective.
• What is the evaluation of the cognitive interview?

  + Gelselman et al (1985)

  .tested p's by showing them videos of a stimulated crime and then testing different groups with a cognitive interview, standard police interview or an interview under the influence of hypnosis. They found that the cognitive interview elicited more information from the p's than the other types.

  
  

  +Economic implications

  Research showing the cognitive interview helps accuracy of eyewitness reporting enables better use of police time and resources-police/government funds are better spent if you get more correct info/quicker resolution of the crime

  
  

  
  

  
  

  +Kohnken et al

  Conducted a meta analysis of 53 studies and found, on average, an increase of 34% in the amount of correct information generated in the cognitive interview compared with standard interview techniques.

  -Cognitive interviews can create an increase in incorrect information too... The Kohnken et al study found an increase of 81% of correct information BUT also an increase of 61% of incorrect information when the cognitive interview was compared to the standard interview. This means that police need to treat all information collected from cognitive interviews with caution; it does not guarantee accuracy.

  
  

  -The Cognitive Interview techniques is time consuming...

  .Police are reluctant to use the cognitive interview. It takes more time than the standard police interview/time is needed to establish rapport with the witnesses

  .Requires special training-many police forces can't provide more than a few hours

  .This means it is unlikely the proper version of the cognitive interview is being used

  
  

  -Memon et al (1994) Failed to find any improvement using the cognitive interview

  .38 experienced police officers were trained for 4 hours on general interviewing principles.

  .Half of these were the trained on the cognitive interview

  .Police officers then
• What is change the perspective as a stage of the cognitive interview?

  Witnesses should recall the incident from other people's perspectives. For example, how it would have appeared to other witnesses or the perpetrator. This is done to disrupt the effect of expectations on recall.
• What is change/reverse the order as a stage of the cognitive interview?

  Events should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence, for example, from the final point back to the beginning. This is done to prevent people reporting their expectations of how the event may have happened rather than actual events.
• What is report everything as a stage of the cognitive interview?

  Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even though it may seem irrelevant or the witness doesn't feel comfortable about it. Seemingly trivial details may be important and may actually trigger more important memories.
• What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview to improve accuracy of EWT?

  1. Report everything

  2. Mental reinstatement of original context

  3. Change/reverse the order

  4. Change the perspective
• What is the general evaluation into anxiety and EWT?

  -Real life studies lack control...

  Researchers usually interview witnesses some time after the event. All sorts of things can happen to the pt.'s in this time that the researchers have no control over. These extraneous variables in real life cannot be controlled and these may influence accuracy of recall.

  
  

  -Ethics

  Creating anxiety in pt.'s is very risky-protection from harm issues. This is why real life studies are good as the researcher doesn't create anxiety-the event had already happened.

  
  

  -The Yerkes-Dodson curve may be too simplistic...

  Anxiety is very difficult to define/measure accurately. One reason for this is that it has many elements-cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical. However the inverted U explanation only assumes 1 of these (physical arousal) is linked to EWT and therefore it may be too simple.

  
  

  -Demand characteristics in lab studies...

  Most lab studies showed pt.'s a filmed crime...Chances are most of them will work out for themselves that they are going to be asked questions about what they have seen.
• Why do we get contradictory results?

  . Deffenbacher (1983)reviewed 21 studies into the effects of anxiety on accuracy of EWT. He found that 10 of these studies had results that linked higher anxiety to increased levels of accuracy while 11 of them showed the opposite.

  
  

  . He suggested that the Yerkes-Dodson curve could explain why-According to this there would be occasions when anxiety is only low/moderate and then EWT would be improved; however when anxiety is too high EWT accuracy will be reduced.
• What is Valentine & Mesout's London dungeon study into anxiety and EWT?


  . Valentine & Mesout (2009)carried out a study in the real-life setting the Horror Labyrinth at the London Dungeon. It is designed to be frightening with many scares such as darkness, gory models and sudden movements.

  
  

  . Visitors to the Dungeon were offered a reduced entrance fee if they agreed to complete questionnaires at the end of their visit to assess their level of self-reported anxiety. They wore wireless heart monitors to confirm they were experiencing anxiety-pt.'s were divided into 2 groups-high and low anxiety.

  
  

  . The pt.'s task was to describe a person encountered in the Dungeon played by an actor. The researchers found that the high anxiety pt.'s recalled the fewest correct details about the actor and made more mistakes.

  
  

  . They also found that 17% of the high anxiety group correctly identified the actor in a line-up compared to 75% correct identification by those in the low anxiety group.
• What is Christianson and Hubinettes bank robbery study into anxiety and EWT?

  Procedure

  . Found evidence of enhanced recall when they questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden.

  . The witnesses were either victims (the bank teller)=high anxiety

  OR

  Bystanders (employees/customers)=low anxiety. The interviews were conducted 4-15 months after the robberies.

  
  

  Findings

  . Witnesses showed generally good memories for details of the robbery itself (better than 75% recall)

  . The people in the high anxiety situation had the best recall of all.
• What is a study that criticises this being linked to anxiety?


  .This study has been criticised by Pickel (1998) who suggests the reason for the lower identification in the weapon scenario may be surprise and not anxiety.

  .He conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or raw chicken as the hand-held items in a video about hairdressers-(scissors would be low anxiety as they are low for unusualness in a salon).

  .EWT was significantly poorer in the high unsusualness conditions (handgun and chicken) suggesting weapon focus is due to unusualness not anxiety.
• What is the evaluation of this study?

  -ve protection from harm

  -vedeception

  +ve real behaviour/responses-didn't know part of study
• What do these results tell us about the effects of anxiety on accuracy of EWT?

  Anxiety has a negative effect on accuracy as their recall was worse.
• What is Johnson and Scotts weapon focus effect study into anxiety?

  .Led pt.'s to believe they were going to take part in a lab study

  .While seated in a waiting room pt.'s heard an argument in the next room

  .In the low anxiety condition a man then walked through the waiting area carrying a pen with grease on his hands

  .Other pt.'s overheard the same heated argument,but this time it was accompanied by the sound of breaking glass

  .In this scenario a man walked through the waiting area holding a paper knife covered in blood. This was the high anxiety situation.

  
  

  Findings

  .The pt.'s had to pick the man out of 50 photographs

  .49% of those in condition 1 (low anxiety/pen & grease) could pick out the man.

  .33% of those in condition 2 (high anxiety/paper knife & blood) could pick out the man.
• What is the general evaluation into EWT?

  +Useful real-life applications

  Research has been hugely important in the real world. Due to research into leading questions etc police are now aware of how memory is influenced and now use the cognitive interview.

  
  

  -Many of the experiment tasks are artificial

  Lots of research in this area, use artificial tasks, e.g. in Loftus' car crash study-no emotion compared to a real life crash. Therefore these studies may tell us very little about how leading question affect EWT in real life.

  
  

  -Individual differences

  Older people are less accurate. Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found people are more accurate at identifying their own age. Studies often have the perpetrator of crimes as a young person and therefore this may put older groups at a disadvantage straight away.

  
  

  -It may be response bias

  The response bias explanation suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the pt,'s memories, but just influences how they decide to answer.When a pt. gets a leading question for example with the word 'smashed' this encourages them to choose a higher speed-it has just influenced how they responded.

  
  

  -Demand characteristics

  Pt.'s do not want to let the researcher down/want to appear helpful so, when asked questions they don't know the answer to they may guess-if you were being asked a leading question your guess would follow the question.
• What is repeat interviewing?

  . Each time an eyewitness is interviewed there is the possibility that comments from the interviewer will become incorporated into their recollection of events.

  . It is also the case that the interviewer may use leading questions and thus alter the individual's memory for events. This is especially the case when children are being interviewed.
• What are the 2 things post-event discussion can cause?

  Memory contamination: when co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix information from other witnesses with their own memories

  memory conformity: witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right.
• What is Gabbert et al (2003) study into post-event discussion?

  -Studied pt.'s in pairs

  -Each pt. watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view

  -This meant that each pt. could see elements in the event that the other could not.

  -For example, only one of the pt.'s could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman

  -Both pt.'s then discussed when they had seen before individually completing a test of recall

  Findings

  A very high number of witnesses (71%) who had discussed the event went on to mistakenly recall items acquired during the discussion.
• What is Yuille and Cutshall's real life study into leading questions?

  . Also found evidence of greater accuracy in real life. Witnesses to an armed robbery of a gun shop in Canada gave very accurate reports of the crime 4 months after the event even if they had initially been given 2 leading questions.

  Emotional cue x affect from leading questions
• What is Loftus/Braun et al (2002) study for leading questions?

  . College students were asked to evaluate advertising material about Disneyland

  . Embedded in this material was misleading information about either Bugs Bunny or Ariel. (Neither character could have been seen at Disneyland as Bugs Bunny is not Disney and Ariel hadn't been introduced at the time of their childhood)

  . Pt.'s were assigned to the Bugs Bunny, Ariel or control condition (no misleading info)

  . Pt.'s in the Bugs or Ariel group were more likely to report having shaken hands with these characters than the control group.
• What is the evaluation for the 2 experiments conducted by Loftus?

  Leading questions have a negative affect on the accuracy of EWT as the verb + the leading question about glass had altered the answers of pt.'s
• What is Loftus and Palmer's experiment 2 for leading questions?

  . New set of pt.'s divided into 3 groups

  . Shown a film of a car accident lasting 1 minute and again asked questions about speed

  . Returned 1 week later and were asked 10 questions including "Did you see the broken glass?"

  . No glass but wanted to see if those thought car was fast would say yes

  VERB CONDITION + YES/NO

  .Smashed (Yes-16,No-34)

  .Hit (Yes-7,No-43)

  .Control(Yes-6,No-44)
• What do the findings of experiment 1 show us about leading questions and the accuracy of EWT?

  Leading questions have a negative effect on the accuracy of EWT as the speeds differed depending on verb used despite seeing same clips.
• What is Loftus and Palmer's experiment 1 for leading questions?

  . 45 students-7 films of traffic accidents

  . After each film pt.'s given a questionnaire which asked specific questions about them.

  . 1 critical question-"About how fast were the cars going when they ----- each other/"

  . 1 of 5 words per group-either hit, smashed, collided, bumped or contacted

  Findings

  VERB + MEAN ESTIMATED SPEED

  .smashed-40.8

  .collided-39.3

  .bumped-38.1

  .hit-34.0

  .contacted-31.8
• What is post event discussion?

  A conversation between co-witnesses or an interviewer & an eye witness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witnesses memory for the event.
• What are leading questions?

  A question that, either by it's form or content suggests to the witness what answer is desired or lead him/her to the desired answer.
• What is misleading information?


  Supplying info that may lead a witnesses memory for a crime to be altered.
• What is the definition of eyewitness testimony?

  The evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime, with a view to identifying the perpetrator of the crime.
• What is other evaluation?

  +There is lots of research support...

  Eynsenck (2010) argues that retrieval failure is the main reason forgetting in LTM. Having lots of research support increases the validity of this explanation-especially when research is done in real life settings (divers)

  
  

  +Real word application

  When you are taking exams Abernethy suggests should revise in the room you will be taking the exam in. Smith (1979) just by thinking of the room where you did the original learning was as effective as actually being in the same room for retrieval.

  
  

  -Problems with the encoding specificity principle......

  Can the ESP be tested? The short answer is no. ESP says you do better with cues encoded at time of learning and worse without these cues if not present when tested. This is just assumptions-there is no way to test if you did code the cue or not!
• What is the study into smell as a context-related cue to memory?

  Waskett (1999) conducted a study based on a museum in York called the Jorvik in Viking times. This is an underground museum where you can walk round the 1000 year old ruins of Jorvik, recreated to be like the town of that time-including all the smells. The researchers found that recreating these smells helped people to recall details of their trip to the museum more accurately, even after several years
• What is the state dependent forgetting study?

  Goodwin et al

  -asked male volunteers to remember list of words when they were either sober or drunk (3X the limit)

  -recall list after 24hrs where some were either sober or drunk again

  -those sober at learning and recall had much better recall

  -those drunk at learning had better recall than those who were drunk for recall
• What is the context-dependent study and findings?

  Godden and Baddeley

  Procedure

  -learn on land-recall on land

  -learn on land-recall underwater

  -learn underwater-recall on land

  -learn underwater-recall underwater

  
  

  Findings

  -in 2 conditions where recall didn't match learned environment recall of words 40% less

  
  

  Evaluation

  -However Baddeley argued different contexts have to be very different for an effect

  -in real life learning something in 1 room and recalling in other less likely to result in retrieval failure as rooms aren't different enough

  -maybe retrieval failure doesn't have real world applications

  
  

  -Also context effect may be related to kind of memory being tested

  -Godden and Baddeley replicated underwater test but used recognition test instead of recall

  -pts had to say whether they recognised word from word list

  -when recognition tested no context dependent effect
• What is the encoding specificity principle?

  -Tulvig and Thompson proposed memory is most effective when cues are present

  -The closer the cue is to the original term the more useful it will be

  -Tulvig Pearlstone demonstrated retrieval cues when pts hads to learn 48 words belonging to 12 categories

  -each word was presented as a category and a word e.g fruit-apple

  -there were 2 different recall conditions

  -pts either had to recall as many words as they could or given cues in form of category name

  -in free recall 40% of words recalled

  -in cued recall 60%
• What are cues?

  a trigger of information that allows us to access a memory and they may be meaningful or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning
• What is retrieval failure?


  A form of forgetting. It occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
• General evaluation points on interference

  .Time between learning

  -lab experiments designed so interference is maximised

  -time period between learning lists and recall is 20 mins (short)

  -we dont normally learn this way and remember so study findings may not reflect actual real life interference

  
  

  .Interference effects may be overcome using cues

  -Tulvig gave pts list of 24 words to learn organised into 6 categories

  -categories not explicit but presumed to be obvious

  -recall 70% for first list

  -more lists=worse recall

  -at end of test given cued recall test and category names

  -recall rose to 70%

  -can get rid of interference if you use recalls

  
  

  .Individual differences

  -some people less affected by proactive interference

  -kane & Engle

  -people with greater WM span less susceptible to proactive interference

  -gave pts 3 word lists to learn

  -those with low WM span showed greater proactive interference
• Findings


  -when pts recalled original list performance depended on 2nd list they'd been given

  -most similar material (synonyms) produced the worse recall

  -shows interference strongest when memories are similar
• Effects of similarity McGeoch and McDonald

  -in both proactive and retroactive interference interference worse when memory/learning is similar

  -studied retroactive interference by changing amount of similarity between 2 sets of materials

  -pts learned list of 10 words until they could remember with 100% accuracy

  -then had to learn new list

  -6 groups of pts who had to learn different types of lists

  .group 1-synonyms-words with same meaning as originals

  -group 2-anatonyms-words with opposite meaning to the original

  -group 3-words unrelated to the originals

  -group 4-nonsense syllables

  -group 5-three-digit numbers

  -group 6-no new list-pts just rested
• Evaluation of the study

  -ve head injuries?

  -ve biased sample

  +ve mundane realism
• What is Baddeley and Hitch's study into retroactive interference?

  .investigated interference effects in rugby players

  .asked to recall names of teams played over a rugby season week by week

  .number of games played

  .those who had played more games forgot more due to retroactive interference as the newer information replaces the old as its similar