Psychology

• Refers to distinctiveness and variations in people's characteristics and behaviour patterns
• Situationism principle: Situations and circumstances outside oneself have the power to influence behavior
• Situationist perspective views human behavior as resulting from interaction of external and internal factors
• Assessment of psychological attributes:
• Assessment: Measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison
• Formal assessment is objective, standardized, and organized
• Informal assessment is open to subjective interpretations
• Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviors, and personal qualities of individuals
• Some domains of psychological attributes:
• Intelligence: Global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges
• Aptitude: Individual's underlying potential for acquiring skills
• Interest: Individual's preference for engaging in specific activities relative to others
• Personality: Relatively enduring characteristics that make a person distinct from others
• Values: Enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behavior
• Assessment methods:
• Psychological test: Objective and standardized measure of an individual's mental and/or behavioral characteristics
• Interview: Seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis
• Case Study: In-depth study of the individual in terms of psychological attributes and history
• Observation: Employing systematic, organized, and objective procedures to record behavioral phenomena
• Self Report: Method where a person provides factual information about themselves and/or opinions, beliefs, etc.
• Intelligence:
• Oxford Dictionary defines intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing
• Early intelligence theorists used attributes like rational thinking, purposeful action, and effective dealing with the environment
• Theories of intelligence:

  • Psychometric Approach
  • Information Processing Approach
• Psychometric Approach:

  • Uni/One-Factor Theory (Alfred Binet)
  • Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman)
  • Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone)
  • Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen)
  • Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford)
• Information Processing Approach:

  • Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
  • Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg)
  • Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-Successive Model of Intelligence (PASS) (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby)
• Individual differences in intelligence:

  • Evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence from studies on twins and adopted children
  • Correlation of intelligence with separation in childhood, adopted children, role of environment, disadvantaged children
• Assessment of intelligence:

  • Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon's first successful attempt to measure intelligence in 1905
  • William Stern's concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) in 1912
  • IQ formula: MA/CA x 100
  • Average IQ in the population is 100
• IQ (Intelligence Quotient):

  • Refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100
  • Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age
  • Frequency distribution for IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve, symmetrical around the mean
• • Early signs include larger attention span, good memory, early language skills, advanced logical thinking, problem-solving, high creativity, and independence
• Variations in Intelligence:

  • Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):
  • Significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning with deficits in adaptive behaviour
  • Criteria for mental retardation: IQ below 70 and deficits in adaptive behaviour observed between 0-18 years
  • Levels of retardation: mild retardation, development slower than peers but can function independently; increasing levels lag behind peers in skills and need training
  • Intellectual Giftedness:
  • Exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in various areas
• Types of Intelligence Tests:

  • Group or Individual Tests
  • Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests
  • Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
  • Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects to perform tasks
• Culture and Intelligence:

  • Intelligence helps individuals adapt to their environment
  • Culture provides a context for intelligence to develop
  • Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and achievements in art and literature
  • Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies intelligence is a product of culture
  • Culture provides a social context for people to live, grow, and understand the world around them
• Emotional Intelligence:

  • Set of skills underlying accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions
  • Emotional Quotient (EQ) involves perceiving and managing one's and others' feelings to motivate oneself, handle interpersonal relationships effectively
  • Salovey and Mayer defined emotional intelligence as monitoring and discriminating among emotions to guide thinking and actions
• Special Abilities:

  • Aptitude indicates capacity to acquire specific knowledge or skill after training
  • Interest is a preference for an activity; aptitude is potentiality to perform that activity
  • Proper training can enhance abilities
  • Success in a field requires both aptitude and interest
• Creativity:

  • Ability to produce novel and appropriate ideas, objects, and solutions
  • Creativity involves thinking in novel ways and coming up with unique solutions
  • Manifested in different levels and areas, from everyday creativity to special talent creativity
  • Creativity is reality-oriented, constructive, and socially desirable
  • Heredity and environment influence creativity
• Creativity and Intelligence:

  • Creativity is forming something new and valuable
  • Certain level of intelligence is necessary for creativity
  • Relation between creativity and intelligence is positive
  • Creativity can be expressed in various fields like writing, dance, poetry, and science
• Self and Personality:

  • Self refers to an individual's conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings
  • Structure of self includes personal and social identity
  • Personal identity differentiates a person from others, while social identity links a person to a social or cultural group
• Cognitive and Behavioral Aspects of Self:

  • Self-concept is how we perceive ourselves and our competencies
  • Self-esteem is the value judgment a person has about themselves
  • Self-efficacy is the belief in controlling life outcomes
  • Self-regulation is the ability to organize and monitor behavior
• Culture and Self:

  • Indian culture has a shifting boundary between self and others
  • Techniques of self-control include observation of behavior, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement