Normative Ethical Theories

• Normative Ethical Theories: Types/Approaches: Deontological

  -> Absolutist form of moral decision-making.

  -> Based on duty, rule and rights.

  -> Aquinas' natural moral law theory is a deontological ethical theory.
• Normative Ethical Theories: Types/Approaches: Teleological

  -> Relates to the telos or goal being aimed at.

  -> It is consequentialist because this seems an effective way of achieving the goal. (Concerned with the purpose of actions therefore with the consequences).

  -> Fletcher's situation ethics is a teleological ethical theory.
• Normative Ethical Theories: Types/Approaches: Character-based

  -> Concerned with what person you want to be.

  -> Contains the idea that a person who is unselfish, kind, etc, is going to perform actions that are unselfish, kind, etc.

  -> Aristotle's virtue ethics is a character-based ethical theory.
• Natural Moral Law: Aquinas

  - Standard Catholic approach to moral decision-making.

  - Aquinas believes that:

  -> God is immutable (changeless) and therefore consistent.

  -> God is absolutely good, and the purpose of creation was to reflect that goodness.

  -> The laws of nature reflect God's nature and regulate the created world.

  -> A supreme good is when something fulfils its meant purpose.

  -> Everything has a final cause (goal) / supreme good and the final cause / supreme good of humanity is eudaimonia (happiness, complete well-being, flourishing).
• Natural Moral Law: The fourfold division of law: 1. Eternal Law

  -> God's blueprint for all natural and moral order of things. The mind of God that humans cannot know.
• Natural Moral Law: The fourfold division of law: 2. Divine Law

  -> God's special revelation disclosed to humanity through the Bible and teachings of the Catholic Church, which contains truths not discoverable by human reason, but only by God's grace.
• Natural Moral Law: The fourfold division of law: 3. Natural Moral Law

  -> God's eternal law revealed through nature and interpreted through reason.

  -> Everyone has a natural sense to do good and avoid evil.

  -> It is what directs our conscience and if applied with reason to a situation it will lead to the right outcome.
• Natural Moral Law: The fourfold division of law: 4. Human Law

  -> The systems of law built up by human societies on the basis of natural law.
• Natural Moral Law

  - Aquinas believed that all humans were by nature disposed to do good.

  - His basic guiding principle was: pursue what is good and avoid evil.

  -> This was built upon by his primary precepts, which listed the fundamental goods to which all humans are disposed and which are always and absolutely true.

  -> Obeying them leads to eudaimonia on earth and heaven.
• Primary precepts

  -> Preserve life.

  -> Reproduce.

  -> Educate children.

  -> Worship God.

  -> Live in an ordered society.

  
  

  1-3 is also true to animals.

  4-5 is specific to humans.

  - They all apply to humans and we must follow them in order to fulfil our true purpose or supreme good.
• Secondary precepts

  - Rules showing humans how to apply the primary precepts to specific situations in their lives.

  - Anything that hinders humanity's telos as reflected in the primary precepts is right or wrong.

  -> Preserve life = Do not kill, No abortion, No capital punishment.

  -> Reproduction = No contraception, Permit IVF and Surrogacy, No masturbation.

  -> Educate = Free education for school students, making school compulsory.

  -> Order in society = Do not steal, build more homes.

  -> Worship God = Pray, set one day a week aside for worship.
• Evaluation of secondary precepts

  - Secondary precepts give humans practical rules which govern our daily behaviour wherever we are.

  - They are flexible and can be interpreted within the context of the situation.
• Real & Apparent Goods

  - Despite the desire to do good, humans fall short of God's intentions for them.
• Apparent Goods

  - Something which might seem to be good or the right thing to do but does not fit perfection (our telos).
• Real Goods

  - The right thing to do, which enables us to reach our purpose, and therefore perfection.
• Exterior Acts

  - Something needs a right intention, otherwise it is just a performative act.
• Interior Acts

  - Something that is genuinely good as the person has the best intentions at heart.
• Four cardinal virtues

  - Adopted from Aristotle: following these would also help you follow the 'real good' which also helps us to flourish and achieve our true purpose. Would also help us to achieve eudaimonia.
• Four cardinal virtues: Prudence

  - Using our practical wisdom to understand what to do in a situation, developed through experience.
• Four cardinal virtues: Justice

  - Treating people fairly and lawfully.
• Four cardinal virtues: Fortitude

  - Strength of mind.
• Four cardinal virtues: Temperance

  - Moderation/self-control of actions.
• Three theological virtues

  - Derive from the St Paul new testament, would also help people to follow NML and achieve eudaimonia.

  - Aquinas believed we were given these virtues through God's grace.

  -> Hope

  -> Charity (also known as love/agape)

  -> Faith
• Principle of double effect

  - In difficult situations, applying the four criteria of this principle helps people know if it might be right to set aside the secondary precepts while still upholding the primary ones.

  -> This is applied in a wide range of situations, but especially in medical ethics.
• Principle of double effect: The nature of the act condition

  - The morality of the proposed action must be good or at the very least neutral.
• Principle of double effect: The means-end condition

  - The bad effect of the action must not be the means by which the good effect is achieved.
• Principle of double effect: The good intention condition

  - The intention must be to achieve a good effect.

  -> The bad effect may be foreseen but it must not be intended.
• Principle of double effect: The proportionality condition

  - The good effect must be at least proportionate in its significance to the bad effect.
• Proportionalism

  - States that the moral principle arising out of NML should be firmly upheld unless there is a proportionate reason for not doing so.

  - There are no intrinsically evil acts.

  - Two things must be taken into account:

  -> The intention of the moral agent (the person involved in making an ethical decision).

  -> The value of the good effect weighed against the disvalue of the bad effect.
• Evaluation of proportionalism: Strengths

  Strengths:

  -> It is used in Just War theory. Shows that it is works and can be applied.

  -> In situations where it is applied, it makes good sense.
• Evaluation of proportionalism: Weaknesses

  -> The Magisterium (teaching authority of the Church, which consists of the Pope and bishops) has denounced it because of its claim that there are no intrinsic evils. (What about torture, rape, slavery).

  -> Its calculation of value and disvalue seems consequentialist. May not be easy to give an accurate prediction of the outcome.
• Evaluation of Natural Moral Law: Strengths

  -> It is an absolutist view on morality. (Common rules, offers a clear structure, answers the problem of relativism).

  
  

  -> It is a universal view of morality. (NML sets common rules that can be applicable to all as the moral code is based on reason, it is flexible enough to accommodate to different cultures as the secondary precepts allow people to interpret them in accordance to their culture, belief in God is universal).

  
  

  -> It supports human rights (concrete reason to be moral, firm basis from which to refuse to step over moral boundaries, possible to make moral judgements in other societies).

  
  

  -> It combines faith and reason.
• Evaluation of NML: Weaknesses

  -> How do we know what is natural? (Death is natural, should we work to delay it?)

  
  

  -> Some believe that God did not create the universe for a purpose (e.g. Russell believes the universe is just a brute fact).

  
  

  -> Natural vs socially acceptable (subordination of women and slavery used to be viewed as 'natural').

  
  

  -> Too optimistic (people will knowingly do wrong).

  
  

  -> Darwin's evolutionary theory (living things are motivated by the will to survive, natural selection, humanity exists through chance and not from God, humans are fundamentally self interested).
• Situation Ethics: Fletcher

  - Fletcher roots his ideas in the roots of Christianity - the gospel accounts of Jesus's teaching. Not the Church.
• General principles of situation ethics

  - The only rule is you should act in the way that results in the most love being shown.

  - Middle way between legalism and antinomianism.

  - Middle way between teleological and deontological.
• Four working principles: Pragmatism

  - We should do what is pragmatic, i.e. what works in the situation.
• Four working principles: Positivism

  - Based on positive facts, i.e. affirming the believe that agape is the only intrinsically good thing.
• Four working principles: Personalism

  - Taking the individual into account, morality is about people, not rules, and so people should come before this.
• Four working principles: Relativism

  - Morality is relative to the situation, judgement depends on the circumstances.
• Six fundamental principles

  -> Only one thing is intrinsically good: unconditional, universal love for all people.

  -> The most important ruling norm of Christian decision = love. This should guide ALL decision making.

  -> Love and justice are the same, for love is justice distributed.

  -> Love wills the neighbour's good, whether we like him or not.

  -> Only the end justifies the means. Anything can be done if it brings about the most loving outcome.

  -> Love's decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively.