Development

• Synapse


  - at end of axon; thegap between 2 neurons- an electrical impulse travels along the axon, releasing neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) that diffuse across the synapse, where they bind to receptor (lock and key)- this triggers an impulse in the next neuron.
• Neurons


  - cells that transmit were impulses to send messages between brain and body

  - cell body is covered in dendrites (like fingers) and an axon (like a tail)

  - dendrites receive info from other neurons + transmit this info via an electrical impulse to the cell body. The impulse is then transmitted to another neuron by the axon
• Receptors


  - Parts of the neuron that accept the neurotransmitter from another neuron

  - They help transmit the message between the neurons
• Criticisms of IQ tests

  Intelligence is a broad concept - complex to measure it.

  Tests may be culturally biased - e.g. may require cultural knowledge (language).
• First IQ test developed. How is it used today?

  Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales test often used today to identify high and low intelligence

  - low intelligence = extra support

  - high intelligence children = stretched and challenged.
• What are IQ tests and what do they measure?

  - Intelligence Quotient (Alfred Binet)

  - measures our ability and potential to learn, think and problem solve.
• What is intelligence?

  Our ability and potential to learn, think and problem solve.
• Brain development in adulthood

  Around 25 years - The prefrontal cortex (rational part of brain) finally matures (can focus on long-term consequences of actions and reduce impulsiveness).

  Later adulthood - Neurodegenerative disorders may occur (e.g. Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease). Death of neurons affect brain, movement, thinking, memory etc.
• Brain development in adolescence

  Grey matter (cells found on surface of brain) reaches maximum density.

  The limbic system (regulates emotions and forms memories) matures.

  The pre-frontal cortex (regulates decision-making and social behaviour) matures last, explaining risk-taking in adolescence.

  The frontal lobes reach maturity at around 16 years old.
• Brain development in childhood

  After birth - Brain develops many new neural connections (~1000 per second). Synapses in visual cortex nearly doubles up to age of four months.

  Five months - New synapses allow child to see in 3D and colour.

  Three years - Synapse density in pre-frontal cortex at its peak, allowing child to use past experiences to understand the present and cause and effect.
• Brain development in the pre-natal stage

  First trimester (16 days after fertilisation) - neural tube develops, this will become brain and spinal cord. Cells are created from around 6 weeks to 20 weeks gestation.

  Two months gestation - Neural tube divides into brain cells and nerve cells, forming the cerebral cortex (responsible for how we think act, act, memories, and intelligence - made up of the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe and occipital lobe).
• Who believed that children learn like little scientists?

  Piaget - children are 'little scientists', actively learning since birth.

  
  

  NOT Willingham - he suggested that children cannot think like little scientists - years of study required to carry out experiments.
• According to Dweck, how should a growth mindset be developed?

  Practice and effort, praising effort not ability, challenging problem-solving tasks.
• What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?

  Assimilation - new information merged into existing schemas

  Accommodation - new information results in a new schema or altering an existing one
• What is a schema?

  Mental pictures/ expectations of the world.
• Piaget's suggested that the cognitive stages are invariant and universal. What do these mean?

  Invariant - do not change, pass in same order.

  Universal - same for all children.
• Applying Willingham's learning theory to education


  Meaning not learning styles - develop understanding of meaning (not catering to learning styles).
• Applying Dweck's learning theory to education

  Growth mindset - small but doable tasks to develop growth mindset. Teachers give students strategies and tools to develop growth mindset and praise effort.
• Applying Piaget's cognitive stages to education

  - Sensori-motor stage: explore simple toys (sensory)

  - Pre-operational stage: dressing up clothes for role-play, symbolic 'make-believe' play.

  - Concrete operational stage: cooking and measurements to help learn to conserve

  - Formal operational stage: hypothetical situations to debate and use hypothetical thinking.
• Applying Piaget's ideas about children's cognition to education

  - teachers adapt teaching to key stages (age-related)

  - readiness: teachers ask questions appropriate to the child's cognitive stage.

  - active learning: children should actively engage with environment to learn (acting as little scientists and problem-solving).

  - the concept of intelligence: intelligence is innate and develops naturally so teaching should suit cognitive skills and capabilities.
• Blackwell et al.: criticisms of both studies


  - cultural bias - not representative of children in different states or countries.

  - in study 2, participants received more anti-stereotyping training than the control group. could have created a sense of unity in the class that affected positivity scores (confounding variable)

  - reductionist - only focused on the student's mindsets. parents/teachers impact on students too.

  - the overall impact of the actual effect was relatively small.
• Blackwell et al.: conclusions

  - adolescents who hold a growth mindset also have stronger learning goals, hold more positive beliefs about effort and make fewer ability-based 'helpless' attributions than those who hold a fixed mindset
• Blackwell et al.: Study 2 results

  - motivational questionnaire: intervention group showed more positive mindsets afterwards. no change in control group.

  - teacher report: 27% in intervention group showed more positive mindset. 9% in control.

  - maths grades: intervention group gained higher grades and had greater change. No decline in grades.
• Blackwell et al.: Study 2 materials

  - 6th grade maths grades as a baseline

  - motivational questionnaire with 6 point likert scale (same as study 1)
• Blackwell et al.: Study 2 variables

  IV: whether participant was in the intervention or control group.

  DV: levels of motivation and achievement on maths assessment.
• Blackwell et al.: Study 2 research design

  - correlational field study with an experimental section

  - independent measures

  - took place in a public secondary school in NYC
• Blackwell et al.: Study 2 sample

  99 7th graders in NYC with varied socioeconomic status and ethnicity.
• Blackwell et al.: Study 2 aim


  To see if intelligence was linked to positive motivation.
• Blackwell et al.: Study 1 results

  - no correlation between theory of intelligence and maths scores at start of 7th grade

  - theory of intelligencedidbecome a significant predictor of maths achievement in 7th and 8th grade exams.

  - those with growth mindset showed greater improvement than fixed mindset, who thought their IQ was fixed at birth
• Blackwell et al.: Study 1 materials

  - scores on standardised maths test taken from 6th grade

  - standardised maths test at end of 7th and 8th grades to measure achievement.

  motivational questionnaire using 6 point likert scale assessing:

  theory of intelligence

  learning goals

  effort beliefs

  helpless response to failure.
• Blackwell et al.: Study 1 variables


  IV: students' theories of intelligence (fixed or growth mindset) and achievement-related beliefs

  DV: maths score at end of 7th and 8th grades.
• Blackwell et al (2007): research method/design


  - longitudinal study (took place over 5yrs)

  - correlational field study

  - natural setting (their school in NY)
• Blackwell et al (2007): Study 1 sample


  373 students from a public secondary school in NYC. varied in ethnicity, achievement and socioeconomic status.
• Blackwell et al (2007): Study 1 aim


  to see whether theories of intelligence correlate with academic achievement in maths

  to test the impact of academic intervention
• Criticisms of Willingham's theory

  - Many teachers and lecturers would disagree with Willingham's views that there's little benefit in students trying to be like actual scientists/historians

  - Certain things might benefit from being drilled (eg. times tables)

  - The theory is on the nurture side of the debate (children with differently-wired brains may need to be taught in a specific way to assist their learning)
• Willingham's theory

  Learning styles (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic learners) are a myth - no evidence to support benefits of these in learning and findings supporting them may not be valid (could be due to confirmation bias).

  Teachers should focus on meaning, rather than learning style by creating links between information and developing true understanding of the meaning (rather than give students a list of facts to remember).

  Students then learn information deeply (can recall it from long-term memory).
• Criticisms of Dweck's theory


  It conveys to children that they are not very good at what they are doing.

  It places failure very firmly on the student (doesn't take into account external factors e.g. bullying)

  Not all research relating to mindsets has been published due to not finding significant results.

  Dweck fails to consider the side of nature - her theory is heavily based on nurture. Innate traits could have a greater impact on a child's ability to succeed than she recognises
• Fixed mindset


  Intelligence is innate and cannot be changed. Little effort is put in to change. May avoid things that they are not good at as failure can affect self-esteem.
• Growth mindset

  Intelligence can develop over time. Everyone has the same potential but dedication, practising and challenging can result in improvement. Setbacks are challenges and opportunities rather than failures.
• Dweck's theory


  - learning theory that focuses on how children learn in the classroom and what influences their ability to succeed

  - children should be praised for effort as it leads to growth mindset; praise for intelligence leads to fixed mindset