biology

• The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids.
• Tertiary structure involves interactions between different parts of the protein molecule that result in its overall shape.
• Secondary structure refers to localized regions of regular folding, such as alpha helices or beta sheets.
• <S:]> Proteins coiled into 3-dimensional structures determined by a sequence of amino acids.
• Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple protein subunits into a functional protein complex.
• The tertiary structure of a protein is the overall three-dimensional shape formed by the folding of the secondary structures.
• Secondary structures are localized regions that form due to hydrogen bonding between different parts of the polypeptide chain, such as alpha helices or beta sheets.
• Amino acids have an amine group (-NH2) at one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end.
• Proteins are made up of amino acid monomers joined together by peptide bonds.
• Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains into one functional unit, such as hemoglobin or insulin.
• Protein synthesis occurs through transcription (DNA → mRNA) and translation (mRNA → protein).
• Transcription takes place in the nucleus while translation occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
• Protein synthesis occurs through transcription (DNA → mRNA) and translation (mRNA → polypeptide).
• Translation begins with initiation, where the small subunit binds to the mRNA at the start codon AUG.
• Translation requires ribosomes, tRNAs, and mRNA.
• Amino acid sequences are encoded by DNA base sequences.
• Protein synthesis occurs through transcription and translation processes. Respectively
• Translation is the process where RNA is translated into a protein.
• Transcription is the process where DNA is transcribed into RNA.
• Protein synthesis involves transcription (DNA -> mRNA), translation (mRNA -> protein), and post-translational modifications.
• Peptides can be broken down into individual amino acids using enzymatic digestion.
• Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where ribosomes read the genetic code on mRNA and produce a specific protein.
• Translation involves ribosomes reading the mRNA sequence and linking amino acids together according to the genetic code.
• Transcription involves RNA polymerase binding to DNA and transcribing it into mRNA.
• The genetic code is universal across all organisms and consists of three-letter codons that specify specific amino acids.
• Translation involves decoding the mRNA sequence using tRNA molecules carrying specific amino acids.
• Elongation is the process of adding more amino acids to the growing chain.
• There are three types of RNA involved in gene expression: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
• Genes are transcribed into pre-mRNA molecules that undergo processing steps such as capping, splicing, and polyadenylation.
• What do amino acids make up?

  Polypeptide chains which produce proteins
• What are the four groups bonded to the central Carbon atom in amino acids?

  Hydrogen, Carboxyl group (COOH), Amine group (NH2), R-group
• What bonds are formed between the Carboxyl group and the Amine group during peptide bond formation?

  Peptide bonds
• What are the four levels of protein structure?

  1. Primary structure: sequence of amino acids
  2. Secondary structure: shape due to folding (alpha helix, beta-pleated sheet)
  3. Tertiary structure: overall 3D conformation
  4. Quaternary structure: two or more polypeptide chains joined
• What is the primary structure of a protein?

  The sequence of amino acids that form the polypeptide chain
• What determines the secondary structure of a protein?

  Hydrogen bonds between the amine and carboxyl groups of different amino acids
• What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

  The overall 3D conformation of the polypeptide
• What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

  Two or more polypeptide chains joined together
• Why is protein structure important?

  It may provide an active or binding site for enzymes or other molecules
• What are nucleotides?

  The basic unit of nucleic acid
• What elements make up nucleotides?

  Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus