Memory - AQA Psychology - Alevel

• Coding in memory:

  • Acoustic coding in short-term memory
  • Semantic coding in long-term memory
• Duration of memory stores:

  • Short-term memory duration is 18-30 seconds
  • Long-term memory duration is unlimited
• Capacity of memory stores:

  • Short-term memory capacity is 7 +/- 2 items
  • Long-term memory capacity is unlimited
• Multi-Store Model of Memory:

  • 3 stores: sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory
  • Sensory register has a huge capacity but duration of less than half a second
  • Short-term memory is acoustically encoded, has a capacity of 7+/- 2 items, and a duration of 18-30 seconds
  • Long-term memory is semantically encoded, has unlimited capacity, and very long duration
• Types of Long-Term Memory:

  • Episodic, semantic, procedural memories
  • Episodic and semantic memories are recalled consciously, procedural memories are recalled unconsciously
• Working Memory Model:

  • STM consists of central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer
  • Central executive allocates tasks to slave systems
  • Phonological loop processes auditory information
  • Visuo-spatial sketchpad combines visual and spatial information
  • Episodic buffer integrates all data processed by other stores
• Explanations for Forgetting - Interference:

  • Interference can be retroactive or proactive
  • Retroactive interference demonstrated by McGeoch and McDonald (1931)
  • Extent of forgetting is larger when memories/materials are very similar
• Retrieval failure suggests that forgetting occurs when the 'cues' present at the time of encoding the information are not present at the time of recall
• This describes Tulving's 'encoding specificity principle' (ESP)
• There are two types of forgetting associated with retrieval failure: context-dependent and state-dependent
• Context-dependent forgetting occurs when external cues at the time of encoding do not match those present at recall
• Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrated this with deep-water divers, showing larger recall in 'matching' conditions
• State-dependent forgetting occurs when internal cues at the time of encoding do not match those present at recall
• Carter and Cassaday (1998) demonstrated this using anti-histamines to change internal cues
• Eysenck suggested that retrieval failure may be a main reason for forgetting from the LTM
• Findings from studies of retrieval failure may lack ecological validity
• Godden and Baddeley repeated their experiment but found no significant difference in recognition accuracy between matched and non-matched conditions
• The encoding specificity principle suffers from cyclical reasoning due to its over-reliance on assumptions
• Eyewitness testimony can be influenced by misleading information such as leading questions and post-event discussions
• Leading questions suggest a correct answer and can influence participants' responses
• Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated this with different critical verbs affecting speed estimates of a car crash
• Post-event discussions can lead to memory conformity and inaccurate recall
• Gabbert et al (2003) showed high inaccuracy rates from post-event discussions
• Own age bias and demand characteristics can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
• Participants may recall others from their own age group with higher accuracy
• Participants may give answers they think are expected, biasing results
• Artificial tasks and stimuli reduce the ecological validity of studies on EWT
• Anxiety can have both positive and negative effects on the accuracy of EWT
• Johnson and Scott (1976) showed that anxiety can have a negative effect on recall accuracy
• Yuille and Cutshall (1986) demonstrated a positive effect of anxiety on recall accuracy
• The Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests an 'inverted-U' relationship between arousal and performance
• The weapon focus effect may test for surprise rather than anxiety
• Ethical issues arise from exposing participants to distressing images and recalling traumatic events
• Cognitive interviews aim to increase accurate recall in eyewitness testimony
• Stages include reporting everything, reinstating context, changing perspective, and reversing the order of events
• The enhanced cognitive interview focuses on social dynamics between the eyewitness and interviewer
• The cognitive interview may be time-consuming and require specialist skills
• Milne and Bull (2002) found that context reinstatement and reporting everything produced the greatest accuracy of recall
• What is this

  A card
• This

  A card