History

• Supernatural Tradition:

  • Deviant behavior has been considered a reflection of the battle between good and evil, where people perceive evil
  • In the Great Persian Empire, all physical and mental disorders were considered the work of devils
• Demons and witches:

  • Exorcism: treatment/ritual performed to rid the victim of evil spirits, including shaving a cross pattern in the victim's hair
  • Conviction that sorcery and witches cause madness and other evils continued in the 15th century
• Stress and Melancholy:

  • Insanity was seen as a natural phenomenon caused by mental or emotional stress and believed to be curable
  • Mental depression and anxiety were recognized as illnesses, with despair and lethargy often linked to the sin of acedia or sloth
  • Common treatments included rest, sleep, and a healthy environment
• Mass Hysteria:

  • Characterized by large-scale outbreaks of bizarre behavior, where people were compelled to run out in the streets, dance, shout, and rave
  • Known by names like Saint Vitus’s Dance and tarantism
• Modern Mass Hysteria:

  • Demonstrates the phenomenon of emotion contagion, where the experience of an emotion seems to spread around
• The Moon and Stars:

  • Paracelsus rejected possession by the devil, suggesting that movements of the moon and stars had profound effects on psychological functioning
  • Gravitational effects of the moon on bodily fluids were considered a possible cause of mental disorders
• Biological Tradition:

  • Hippocrates believed psychological disorders could be treated like any other disease, possibly caused by brain pathology, head trauma, or heredity
  • Galen adopted Hippocrates' ideas, introducing the Humoral Theory associating psychological disorders with bodily fluids and qualities
• Psychoanalytic Theory:

  • Franz Anton Mesmer suggested "animal magnetism" as a cause of psychological problems
  • Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer discovered the unconscious mind's influence on psychological disorders, leading to the Psychoanalytic model
• The Structure of the Mind:

  • Freud identified three major parts/functions of the mind: Id, Ego, and Superego
  • Id is the source of strong sexual and aggressive energies, operating on the pleasure principle
  • Ego ensures realistic actions based on the reality principle, mediating conflicts between Id and Superego
  • Superego represents moral principles, countering aggressive and sexual drives of the Id
• Defense Mechanisms:

  • Unconscious protective processes that keep primitive emotions in check
  • Include Denial, Displacement, Projection, Rationalization, Reaction formation, Repression, and Sublimation
• Repression: blocks disturbing wishes, thoughts or experiences from conscious awareness
• Sublimation: directs potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses into socially acceptable behavior
• Psychosexual Stages of Development:

  • Oral stage: 2 years from birth, need for food, act of sucking, necessary for feeding, lips, tongue and mouth become the focus of libidinal drive
  • Fixation: occurs if appropriate gratification is not received during a specific stage or if a specific stage left a particularly strong impression
  • Phallic stage: 3-7 years of age, early genital self-stimulation
  • Oedipus Rex: Greek tragedy where Oedipus is fated to kill his father and marry his mother, leading to strong envy and anger towards their father
• • Castration Anxiety: fear that the father may punish lust by removing the son’s penis, keeping lustful impulses towards his mother in check
  • Oedipus Complex: battle of lustful impulses and castration creates internal conflict
  • Electra Complex: young girl wanting to replace her mother and possess her father
  • Penis Envy: the girl’s desire for a penis
• Neuroses: neurotic disorders, old term referring to disorders of the nervous system
• Later Development in Psychoanalytic Thought:

  • Anna Freud: focused on defensive reactions of the ego determining behavior, first proponent of ego psychology
  • Heinz Kohut: focused on theory of the formation of self-concept and attributes of the self leading to health or neurosis
  • Melanie Klein and Otto Kernberg: Object Relations, study of how children incorporate images, memories, and values of important people
  • Carl Jung: introduced collective unconscious, emphasized introversion and extroversion
• • Alfred Adler: focused on feelings of inferiority and striving for superiority, created inferiority complex
  • Erik Erikson: theory of development across the lifespan, described crises and conflicts in eight stages
• Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy:

  • Designed to reveal unconscious mental processes and conflicts through catharsis and insights
  • Free Association: patients say whatever comes to mind without censoring
  • Dream Analysis: therapist interprets dreams reflecting primary process thinking of the id
  • Psychoanalyst: the therapist
  • Transference: patients relate to the therapist as they did to important figures in childhood
  • Countertransference: therapists project their own personal issues and feelings onto the patient
  • Therapeutic Alliance: relationship of therapist and patient
• • Classical Psychoanalysis: requires 4-5 times a week for 2-5 years to analyze and restructure personality
  • Psychodynamic psychotherapy: focuses on affect, exploration of avoidance, patterns, past experiences, interpersonal experiences, therapeutic relationship, wishes, dreams, or fantasies
• Behavioral Model:

  • Classical Conditioning: learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with a response until it elicits the response
  • Operant Conditioning: behavior changes based on consequences
  • John B. Watson: founder of behaviorism, based psychology on experimental science
  • Burrhus Frederic Skinner: focused on operant conditioning, reinforcement, shaping, and modeling
• Systematic Desensitization: successful anxiety reduction procedure based on behavioral method

  • The Present: behavior is a product of psychological, biological, and social influences
  • Hippocrates: psychological disorders have biological and psychological causes
  • Galen: normal and abnormal behaviors related to four bodily fluids
  • Philippe Pinel: introduced moral therapy in mental institutions
  • Louis Pasteur: developed germ theory of disease
  • Josef Breur: treated Anna O, leading to psychoanalytic theory
  • Sigmund Freud: published the Interpretation of Dreams
• • Ivan Pavlov: studied classical conditioning
  • Emil Kraeplin: classified psychological disorders from a biological point of view
  • B.F. Skinner: published the behavior of organisms, principle of operant conditioning
  • DSM I and DSM II published
• Phlegm: from the brain (phlegmatic personality indicates apathy and sluggishness but can also mean being calm under stress).
• Blood: from the heart (sanguine-red,likeblood)
• Phlegm: from the brain (phlegmatic personality indicates apathy and sluggishness but can also mean being calm under stress).
• • Induced Vomiting, also known as treatise, eating tobacco and a half-boiled cabbage.
• Phlegm: from the brain (phlegmatic personality indicates apathy and sluggishness but can also mean being calm under stress).
• Blood: from the heart (sanguine-red,likeblood- ruddy incomplexion, cheerful and optimistic. Insomnia and delirium caused by excessive blood in the brain)
• Black bile: from the spleen (too much black bile was melancholia-depression) melancholer means black bile.
• Yin (dark wind), Yang (life-sustaining wind)
• Choler/Yellow bile: from the liver. (choleric person, hot tempered)
• Manfred Sakel:

  -using increasingly higher dosages until convulsed and comatose, others recovered their mental health, this procedure became known as insulin shock therapy.
• Benjamin Franklin:

  -made a discovery that a mild and modest electric shock to the head produces a brief convulsion and memory loss and does little harm. 

  -the electric shock produces elation and helped depression
• Joseph von Meduna

  -found that schizophrenia was rarely found in individuals with epilepsy (which was not true), concluded that induced brain seizures might cure schizophrenia.
• Benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers), seemed to reduce anxiety, namely Valium and Librium).
• neuroleptics (major tranquilizers),
• Opium:

  -poppies, had been used as sedatives along with countless herbs and folk remedies.
• Plato and Aristotle: These two philosophers wrote about the importance of fantasises, dreams and conditions. They also advocated human and responsible care for individuals with psychological disturbances.
• Plato: 

  -thought that the two causes of maladaptive behavior were the social and cultural influences in one’s life and the learning that took place in that environment.

  -precursor to modern psychosocial treatment.
• Aristotle: 

  -emphasized that the influence of social environment and early learning on later psychology.