Childhood as a social construct

• Childhood is socially constructed, as created and defined by society. What people mean by childhood is not fixed and differs between different times and cultures.
• The modern western notion of childhood:

  Generally accepted in society today that childhood is a special time of life and that children are fundamentally different from adults. Regarded as physically and psychologically immature and not yet competent to run their own lives. Belief that children's lack of skills, knowledge and experience means that they need a lengthy, protected period of nurturing and socialisation before they are ready for adult society and its responsibilities.
• The modern western notion of childhood - Pilcher:

  the most important feature of the modern idea of childhood is separateness. Childhood is clear and distinct life stage, and children in our society occupy a separate status from adults.
• The modern western notion of childhood:

  Emphasised in several ways, e.g. laws regulating what children are allowed, required or forbidden to do. Difference from adults is through differences in dress, and through products and services specially for children.
• Idea of childhood as a 'golden age' of happiness and innocence. This innocence means that children are seen as vulnerable and in need of protection from the dangers of the adult world and so they must be 'quarantined' and separated from it. Children's lives are lived largely in the sphere of the family and education, where the adults provide for them and protect them from the outside world. They lead lives of leisure and play and are largely excluded from paid work. However, this view is not found in all societies.
• The modern western notion of childhood:

  While all humans go through the same stage of physical development, different cultures construct or define this process differently. Children in other cultures do not necessarily see such a great difference between children and adults.
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood:

  Best way to illustrate the social construction of childhood - is by taking a comparative approach - look at how children are seen and treated in other times and places than our own.
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood - Benedict:

  children in simpler, non-industrial societies are generally treated from their modern western counterparts in 3 ways

  1. They take responsibility from an early age
  2. less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority
  3. children's sexual behaviour is often viewed differently.
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood - Take responsibility from an early age:

  Punch: study of childhood in rural Bolivia found that, once children were 5 years old, they are expected to take work responsibilities in the home and in the community. Tasks are taken on without question or hesitation
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood - Take responsibility from an early age:

  Holmes': study of a Samoan village found that 'too young' was never given as a reason for not permitting a child to undertake a particular task.
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood - Less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority:

  Firth: among the Tikopia of the western Pacific, doing as you are told by a grown-up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child, not a right to be expected by the adult.
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood - Children's sexual behaviour is often viewed differently:

  Malinowski: found that adults took an attitude of 'tolerance and amused interest' towards sexual exploration and activities.
• Cross-cultural differences in childhood - Benedict:

  in many non-industrial cultures, there is much less of a dividing line between the behaviour expected of children and that expected of adults.
• The globalisation of Western Childhood:

  International humanitarian and welfare agencies have exported and imposed on the rest of the world, spreading the western norms of what childhood should be - a separate life stage, based in the nuclear family and school - in which children are innocent, dependent and vulnerable - having no economic role. E.g. campaigners against child labour or concerns about 'street children' reflect western views of what childhood should be like. However, arguably such campaigns have little impact on the position of children in developing countries.
• Historical differences - Aries:

  argues in the middle ages, the 'idea of childhood did not exist'. They weren't seen as having different 'nature' or needs from adults once they had passed the stage of physical dependency during infancy. After being weaned, children entered wider society on the same term as adults, they were 'mini-adults' with the same rights, duties and skills - the law made no distinction between children and adults, meaning children often faced the same severe punishments as those given to adults.
• Historical differences:

  Parental attitudes towards children in the middle ages were different to those from today.

  Shorter: argues that high death rates encouraged indifference and neglect, especially towards infants. E.g. it wasn't uncommon for parents to give a newborn baby the name of a recently dead sibling, refer to the baby as 'it', or to forget how many children they had.
• The Modern Cult of Childhood - Aries:

  Claims elements of modern notion of childhood gradually began to emerge from the 13th century onwards. Schools began to specialise in the education of the young - reflecting an influence of the church who see children as fragile 'creatures of god' in need of discipline and protection from worldly evils. By 18th century, handbooks in childbearing were widely available - demonstrating the growing child-centredness of family life, at least among the m/c.
• Defining the Modern Culture of Childhood:

  these developments, it culminates the modern 'cult of childhood'. Arguing that we have moved away from a world which doesn't see childhood as special, to a world which is obsessed by childhood. Describing the 20th century as 'the century of the child'.
• The modern cult of childhood - Criticisms:

  Sociologists gave criticised Aries for arguing that childhood didn't exist in the past.

  Pollock argues that it is more correct to say that in the middle ages, society simply had a different notion of what childhood is than today's.

  Aries work is valuable because it shows how childhood is socially constructed: demonstrating how ideas about children and their social status have varied over time.
• Reasons for the change in position of children:

  Laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work - from economic assets who could earn a wage, children became an economic liability - financially dependent on their parents.
• Reasons for the change in the position of children:

  The introduction of compulsory schooling - in 1880, meant that children of lower classes could access education. This has then increased the school-leaving age which has extended this period of dependency.
• Reasons for the change in position of children:

  Child protection and welfare legislation - such as the 1889 Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act. A century later, the 1989 Children Act made the welfare of a child the fundamental principle underpinning the work of agencies such as social services.
• Reasons for the change in position of children:

  the growth of the idea of children's rights - e.g. the Children Act defines parents as having 'responsibilities' rather than 'rights' in relation to children. While the United Nations Convention on the rights of a child (1989) lays down basic rights such as entitlement to healthcare and education, protection from abuse, and the right to participate in decisions that impact them.
• Reasons for change in the position of children:

  Declining family size and lower infant mortality rates - have encouraged parents to make a greater financial and emotional investment in the fewer children they now have.
• Reasons for change in the position of children:

  Children's development became the subject of medical knowledge

  Donzelot observes how theories of child development that began to appear from the 19th century stressed that children need supervision and protection.
• Reasons for change in the position of children:

  Laws and policies that apply specifically to children - e.g. minimum ages for a wide range of activities, from sex to smoking. This has reinforced the idea that children are different from adults and so different rules must be applied to their behaviour.
• Reasons for change in the position of children:

  Industrialisation - shift from agriculture to factory production as the basis for the economy has meant that the modern industry requires an educated workforce. This requires compulsory schooling of the young. Similarly, higher standards of living and better welfare provision has lead to lower infant mortality rates. Industrialisation has then been a key factor in bringing about the modern idea of childhood, and their changed status.