Radicalism

• Irish Grievances: Politics

  • before 1782 -> Dublin was were the Irish Parliament was held, and decisions were made but had to be approved by westminster
  • Henry Grattan managed to get the British to allow for an Irish Parliament
  • Catholics couldn't vote still -> affected 75-80% of the population
  • Irish Protestants disliked English Authority
  • Through patronage, the Crown influenced the Dublin Parliament
• Irish Grievances: Economics

  • Britain insisted for there to be no industrial development in Ireland to challenge British industry
  • forbidden a woolen industry
  • linen industry was restricted
  • Protestant merchants were frustrated
• Irish Grievances: Religion

  • No Catholic could legally practice his faith, educate his own children, vote, own land or get a job in civil service/army
  • had to pay tithe to the Protestant church
• Irish Grievances: Agriculture

  • divided into estates which had been given to English and Scottish supporters
  • most didn't even live in Ireland
  • rented land to tenants called agents
  • easily evicted
  • After 1780 -> population grew and agents increased rent
• The French Revolution and Ireland:

  • 1790 - Wolfe-Tone founded the Society of United Irishman, hoped that religious differences and unite to force England to give Ireland freedom.
  • 1792 - Irish Parliament softened some of the laws against Catholics, allowed to run their own schools
  • 1793 - Catholics were allowed to vote in Parliamentary elections but not to be MPs
  • 1796- Tone went to Paris to ask the French Revolutionary Parliament government to send their help in the event of an Irish government
  • Peep o Day Boys - Protestant gang who attacked Catholics
  • Orange Society- Protestant Supremacy
• The French Revolution and Ireland:

  • The Defenders was a Catholic gang
  • December 1796 - French fleet commanded by General Hoche set out for Ireland but only 16/43 ships made it and strong winds made it impossible to land
  • May 1798 - Irish rose in an abortive rebellion -> General Lake reestablished dominance
  • Wolf Tonne committed suicide
• The Act of Union:

  • Pitt believed that Ireland couldn't be given the luxury of an Independent parliament
  • It could've been a base for enemies
  • Pitt put pressure on the Irish Parliament to abolish itself
  • Terms of the Act of Union -> 1801 January
  • Ireland part of the UK, 100 Irish MP's would have seats in the house of commons, 32 in the house of lords, free trade, 1/17 of taxes for the government, Protestant official religion
• The Act of Union:

  • Pitt had promised Catholics more freedoms, this was not the case as King George III disagreed
  • Catholics lost rights and were immensely disappointed
• To oppose radicalism, Pitt introduced harsh laws
• 1792 -> Ban on Seditious literature
• 1794 - Suspension of Habeas Corpus -> detained with no evidence
• 1795 -> Pitt's 'Gagging' Acts (Treasonable Practices and Seditious Meetings Acts)
• 1797 -> Suppression of Naval Mutinies

  This was through the Seduction from the Duty and Allegiance Act and the Act against administering Unlawful Oaths
• 1799 -> Corresponding Societies Banned
• 1799-1800 -> Combination Acts
• Radicals before 1789:

  • some limited radical activity by individuals seeking political change
  • John Wilkes: limit governments power to restrict free speech, increase transparency about government and wanted the franchise (vote) to increase
  • Major John Cartwright: Society for Constitutional Information in 1780, extension to franchise increase
  • Christopher Wyvill: criticised the pocket and rotten boroughs
  • not revolutionaries but wanted improvements to the existing system
• Radical Organisations after 1789:

  Revolutionary Society -> formed in 1788, insist the rights of the 1688 Revolution and increase freedom, frequent parliaments, free elections and freedom of speech within Parliament

  Society of the Friends of the People -> founded by the Whig party in 1792,  encourage lower and middle-class demands for parliamentary reform, followed by the outbreak of war with revolutionary France in 1793, split the Whig Party. The emotions generated by the conflict.
• Radical Organisations after 1789:

  London Corresponding Society -> January 1792, created by Tom Hardy (a shoemaker), working men, similar ones were set up through out the country. 1795 -> there were 3000 members. circulate letters and pamphlets and to initiate orderly debates on reform proposals. Restoration of commonland in the countryside, lower taxes. He was tried for treason (Tom Hardy) but was acquitted.
• Social and Economic conditions:

  • bad harvests in the late 18th century => 1792,1795-96, 1800. Price of bread rose steeply which affected the poor the most
  • increase in population => 1783 -> 7.28 million, 1800 -> 8.62 million
  • social and working conditions were changing as people began working in places such as factories
  • factory workers faced hardship and inconsistent trade
• Elite Support:

  Charles Fox welcomed the French Revolution and were keen to limit power of the monarchy. Even after the outbreak of war, 50 MPs still followed him
• Naval Mutiny at Spithead:

  • grievances were about pay, poor provisions, some influence from France and discontent about harsh punishments
  • petitions complaining about pay were sent to the Admiralty in February and March 1797
  • In April the fleet was immobilized, delegates elected as heads of council
  • Royal pardon -> 23rd April but mutiny was held again on the 7th May
  • Fired at the ships apart of the mutiny
  • fleet returned 15th May
• Naval Mutiny at the Nore:

  • demands focused on the conditions, prize money and unpopular officers
  • joined by ships from the forced blockading of the Netherlands
  • declared as a 'floating republic'
  • 29 sailors were hung
  • blamed on radical writings => led to the passing of harsher and more repressive legislation
• May 1794 -> arrests of leading London Radicals
• 1794 -> Thomas (Tom) Hardy tried for 'imagining the King's death' an offence which carried the death penalty. Acquitted
• The Terror of Pitt seemed quite limited:

  • dependent on laws not merely government action -> meaning that laws could openly be criticised by people like Fox and his supporters
  • England juries were reluctant to convict, especially with Treason as that was the death penalty
  • The government relied on agent provocateurs and spies as they didn't have a police force to enforce its powers
• Pitt's terror was extreme:

  • used agents to influence opinion by subsidising newspapers and loyalist associations => known as Pitt's Club - first created in 1793 by Atcheson
  • 'Church and King' mobs attacked radicals and dissenters
  • 200 prosecutions for treason
  • people were imprisoned with trials due to the stopping of Habeas Corpus
• Corresponding Societies:

  • Pitt worried that they would encourage British people to be discontented and revolt
  • leaders attacked and arrested
  • Juries unwilling to convict
• Public meetings 1795:

  • limit the influence men like Hardy and Tooke had
  • 1795 Seditious Meetings Act: no meeting exceeding 50 to take place, couldn't be against the King
• Seditious Practices Act 1795:

  • October 1795 => King was attacked
  • Repressive legislation
• Aliens Act 1794:

  No foreigner was allowed to enter Britain without special permission.
• Trade Unions:

  Combination Act => illegal to join or form a trade union
• Income Tax 1798:

  • 'temporary tax' on incomes from land, personal property and trade to help pay for war
  • rich paid more
• Women’s rights:

  • discussed free Mary Wollstonecraft’s -> Vindication of the Rights f WWomen was published in 1792
  • Mary Wollstonecraft ==> women’s right activist, her book is a classic of rationalist feminism and is considered the earliest and most important treatise advocating for the rights of women. Her daughter was Mary Shelley She argued that women were not inferior to men naturally but appear to be only because they lack education. She ran a school with her sisters. During this period, her reputation was ruined until the suffragettes.
• The elite such as Charles Fox supported radical change, and he still had 50 MP’s who followed him even after the outbreak of war with France
• Impact of the war:

  • the war brought higher taxation to pay for the armed forces and subsidies to continental allies
  • trade was disrupted which caused economic distress
  • food imports were limited by war —> added to shortages
  • inflation which undermined the value of the currency
  • sailors mutinied in 1797
  • authorities became more repressive -> fear of revolution
  • thought there would be peace
• Was Radicalism a threat:

  Yes

  • there were numerous instances of radical activity, there were some instances of violence (1795 stones thrown at the Kings carriage), mutiny in the navy could have serious issues, Foxite radical MP’s did not support the government
• Was Radicalism a threat:

  No

  • lack of unity with the radical groups, most radicals were peaceful, new loyalist groups (Reeve’s Association), mostly confined to urban areas, put off by the Terror in France 1792, reflection of social and economic issues of the time
• Reeve’s Association:

  • Founder was believed to be John Reeves -> repeatedly denied government involvement in its origins
  • Planned without their knowledge
  • created a loyalist movement
  • appointed commissioner for bankruptcy in 1780