STS UNIT 2

• Ancient Period:

  • Early humans developed practical instruments and gained an understanding of natural principles
  • Egyptians, Sumerians, Chinese, and Maya made significant contributions to mathematics, medicine, architecture, and astronomy
  • Ionian philosophers around 600 BCE are credited with beginning science as an organized body of thought
  • Predecessors of modern humans evolved from hominids, using stones as tools and mastering fire
• Stone Age:

  • Australopithecines were early relatives who made and used stone tools
  • Homo ergaster and Homo erectus around 1.8 million years ago created more advanced tools like hand axes and scrapers
  • Homo erectus are believed to be the first species to use fire
• Bronze Age:

  • Recorded history began around 3,000 BCE
  • Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations were notable contributors
• Mesopotamian Civilization:

  • Situated between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
  • Hub of agriculture, urban planning, mathematics, astronomy, and writing systems
  • Introduced the 360-day calendar, the wheel, and glass
  • Made significant contributions to law, agriculture, and irrigation systems
• Egyptian Civilization:

  • Thriving along the Nile River
  • Known for their calendar, advanced engineering, medical knowledge, and writing systems
  • Contributed to language evolution and developed hieroglyphics and hieratics
• Ancient Chinese Civilization:

  • Nestled along the Huangho (Yellow River)
  • Made significant contributions to astronomy, geography, mathematics, and technology
  • Developed the Lunar Calendar, recorded astronomical observations, and invented the Chinese Zodiac, gunpowder, paper, printing machines, and the compass
• Indus Valley Civilization:

  • Flourished around 3300-1300 BCE in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India
  • Known for advanced urban planning, metallurgy, and agriculture
  • Had a well-developed drainage system and expertise in architectural stability, metallurgy, and agriculture
• Indian Mathematics:

  • Indian mathematicians developed the Hindu-Arabic numeral system around the 6th century CE
  • Introduced the concept of zero and the decimal place value system
  • Arab scholars refined this system and introduced it to Europe, becoming the standard worldwide
• The Iron Age (1200 BCE - 500 CE) saw significant advancements in science and technology, particularly with the widespread use of iron. Iron tools and weapons revolutionized agriculture, construction, and warfare, leading to stronger plows, axes, and swords. Smelting iron ore at high temperatures allowed for intricate metalworking, creating jewelry and ornaments. Agricultural technology also improved, with iron plows and irrigation systems boosting productivity and supporting larger populations.
• Olmecs (1500 B.C.-400 B.C.):

  • Society was hierarchical, with priests and nobles living in ceremonial centers, while normal people lived in farming villages
  • Known for carving colossal heads from volcanic rocks, possibly as portraits of rulers
  • Invented a calendar and hieroglyphic writing, laying the foundation for Mesoamerican writing systems
  • Considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica
• Mayans (300 B.C.-900 A.D.):

  • Innovated farming methods like shifting agriculture and raised bed farming, contributing to agricultural productivity
  • Organized into city-states with a shared economy but no political unity
  • Developed a sophisticated numbering system, including the concept of zero and place value, and a hieroglyphic writing system for recording rituals and astronomical observations
  • Created a solar calendar with 365 days and a ritual calendar with 260 days
• Aztecs (12th-15th Century):

  • Built chinampas, or "floating gardens," to grow crops in the swampy areas around their capital, Tenochtitlan
  • Established a hierarchical society with a ruler, council of nobles, priests, and military leaders
  • Developed a calendar similar to the Mayans', with 365 days and a ritual calendar with 260 days
  • Believed illness was a punishment from the gods but still used herbs and medicine for treatment
• The Renaissance (14th to 17th century CE) was a transformative period known as the "Rebirth"
• Marked by a resurgence in scientific and mathematical pursuits
• Significant developments in algebra, geometry, and calculus laid the foundation for modern mathematics
• Spread of Hindu-Arabic numerals, initially developed in India, facilitated by Middle Eastern mathematicians
• Advancements in cosmology, optics, and physics challenged geocentric views and expanded human vision
• Formulation of the Laws of Motion provided a systematic understanding of physics, paving the way for modern science
• Middle East Revolution:
• Marked by significant advancements in science and mathematics
• Driven by Islamic principles fostering a culture of learning and exploration
• Al-Khwarizmi introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe, revolutionizing mathematics
• Known as the father of Algebra, Al-Khwarizmi's contributions laid the foundation for modern mathematics
• Advancements in alchemy by figures like Musa Jabir In Hayyan advanced the understanding of materials and chemical processes, shaping the study of chemistry
• Revolutionized the world of science and left a lasting impact on human knowledge and inquiry
• Intellectual Revolution (18th Century):
• The Age of Enlightenment challenged deeply entrenched beliefs and reshaped the societal fabric
• Reason and scientific evidence emerged as guiding principles
• Copernican Revolution introduced heliocentrism, challenging the geocentric view
• Darwinian Revolution altered our understanding of the origins and development of life on Earth
• Freudian Revolution explored the human psyche, challenging established psychological norms
• The Industrial Revolution (18th to 19th century CE):
• Originated in Great Britain
• Marked by significant scientific and technological innovations
• Steam engines powered factories and locomotives, revolutionizing industries and transportation
• Other notable inventions like the light bulb and telephone transformed communication
• Laid the foundation for the modern technological landscape and contributed to ongoing innovation and progress
• The African Revolution:
• Significantly contributed to medical advancements
• Key contributions include the discovery of aspirin and Kaopectate