Political reforms

• Constitutional reforms (political reforms):

  • In 1905, a mission was sent to Europe, the US and Japan to study constitutional systems.
  • In 1908, the Imperial Constitutional Outline was promulgated. A 9-year programme of constitutional preparation was announced.
  • In 1909, provincial assemblies, the first elected representative bodies in China, were set up as advisory institutions to provincial administration.
• Constitutional reforms (political reforms):

  • In 1910, the government convened a National Assembly, the precursor of parliament.
  • Half of the members were appointed by the court, while the remaining half were elected from provincial assemblies.
  • In 1911, a cabinet consisting of 13 members were formed, but 7 of them were Manchu nobles.
• Administrative reforms (political reforms):

  • In 1901, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established to replace the Zongli Yamen.
  • 11 new ministries like the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Trade were established to replace the old Six Boards.
  • Redundant officials were dismissed to cut expenses and prevent overlapping of responsibilities among officials.