Chapter 9

• memory


  the ability to retain knowledge
• information processing

  a continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition
• encoding


  the transformation of information from one form to another
• storage

  the retention of information
• retrieval


  the recovery of stored information
• sensory memory


  the first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time
• short-term memory (STM)

  the second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time
• representation of a memory

  mental model of a bit of information that exists even when the information is no longer available
• visual codes/iconic memories

  temporary storage of information about visual images
• haptic codes

  process touch and other body senses
• acoustic codes/echoic memories


  represent sounds and words; last longer than visual codes
• rehearsal


  repetition of information
• chunking


  the process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
• working memory


  an extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously
• phonological loop

  working memory component responsible for verbal and auditory information
• visuospatial sketch pad

  holds visual and spatial information
• central executive


  manages the work of the other components by directing attention to particular tasks; used for divided attention
• episodic buffer

  mechanism for combining information stored in long-term memory
• long-term memory

  the final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories
• levels of processing theory

  the depth (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predicts its ease of retrieval
• maintenance rehearsal

  simple repetition of the material
• elaborative rehearsal


  linking the new material to things you already know
• primacy effect

  superior recall for the first words on the list; people have had more time to place these items in long-term memory
• recency effect

  superior recall for the last words on the list; last words still remain in working memory at the time of retrieval
• declarative/explicit memory

  a consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize, including semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information
• nondeclarative/implicit memory

  an unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming
• semantic memory

  a general knowledge memory
• episodic memory


  a memory for personal experience
• autobiographical memory


  semantic/episodic memories that reference the self
• procedural memory


  a nondeclarative/implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement
• priming

  a change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus
• spreading activation model

  a connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences
• connectionism

  views the mind as a network made up of simpler units/concepts
• schema

  a set of expectations about objects and situations
• cue


  a stimulus that aids retrieval
• encoding specificity


  a process in which memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded
• generate-recognize


  information is retrieved from memory and recognized as correct
• reconstruction


  rebuilding a memory out of stored elements
• flashbulb memory


  an especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
• forgetting


  a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory