1. Observational Design/techniques

• Observational design


  The systematic methodology of observing and recording behaviors or phenomena in a structured manner.
• Why do psychologists use observations

  To study particular behaviours by watching or listening.

  To study natural behaviour in a natural setting which creates a more realistic picture.

  To study behaviours that are unethical to manipulate
• Naturalistic observation


  Observation of behaviors in a natural setting without researcher manipulation or control.
• Advantages of naturalistic observations

  Creates a realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour which has a high ecological validity
• Disadvantages of naturalistic observations

  Little control of environment
• Controlled observation


  Observation of behaviors in a setting where the researcher has control over certain variables.
• Advantages of controlled observations

  Observers can focus on a specific aspect of behaviour
• Disadvantages of controlled observations


  Participants behaviour may be less natural as they might know that they are being studied
• Overt observation


  Observation where the subjects are aware that they are being observed, which will have an effect on the naturalness of their behaviour.
• Disadvantages of overt observations


  It will affect the naturalness of their behaviour which will increase the chance of demand characteristics and has a low ecological validity
• Covert observation


  Observation where the subjects are not aware that they are being observed.
• Advantages of covert observations

  As participants are unaware they are being observed they are far more likely to show naturalistic behaviour.
• Disadvantages of covert observations

  More unethical as participants cannot give their informed consent.
• Participant observation


  Observation where the researcher actively participates in the activities being observed.
• Non-participant observation


  Observation where the researcher remains separate from the activities being observed.
• Structured observation


  A systematic approach to observing and recording behaviours using various organisational systems, 2 examples are behavioural categories and sampling procedures.
• Strengths of Structured observations

  It is a direct observation of the situation/action and it is more efficient.
• Unstructured observation

  Observation without a specific system, often resulting in difficulties in recording and analysing behaviours, often used in pilot studies
• Limitations of Unstructured observations


  There is too much to record. Recorded behaviours that are the most visible might not be the most important
• Behavioural categories


  Dividing a target behavior into specific and operationalised subsets for systematic observation.
• Event sampling


  A technique where the observer counts the number of times a specific behaviour or event occurs within a given time frame.
• Time sampling


  A technique where the observer records behaviors at specific time intervals within a given time frame.
• Sampling procedures


  The method used to select participants or behaviors for observation, such as event or time sampling.
• Secure attachment


  A positive emotional bond between individuals, often studied in the context of infants and caregivers.
• Strange Situation technique


  A procedure used to assess the attachment between individuals, often applied to study the bond between infants and caregivers.
• Facial Action Coding System (FACS)


  A system developed to categorize and record facial expressions, commonly used in non-verbal behavior studies.
• Inter-observer reliability


  The extent to which multiple observers agree on their observations of the same behaviour