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• Address Bus:

  • Carries the address, a unique binary pattern used to identify a memory location or an I/O port
  • An 8-bit address bus has 8 lines and can address 256 different locations (00H - FFH in hexadecimal format)
• Control Bus:

  • Carries control signals for selection of memory or I/O device from the given address, direction of data transfer, and synchronization of data transfer in case of slow devices
• Microprocessor (MPU) System Components:

  • CPU
  • Memory
  • Input
  • Output
  • Data Bus
  • Control Bus
  • Address Bus
• A word refers to the basic data size or bit size that can be processed by the arithmetic and logic unit of the processor
• A bus is a group of wires/lines that carry similar information.
• The system bus is a group of wires/lines used for communication between the microprocessor and peripherals
• The number of bits that can be stored in a register or memory element is called a memory word
• A bit is a single binary digit
• The microprocessor also known as the central processing unit, is the brain of all computers and many household and electronic devices
• Multiple microprocessors, working together, are the "hearts" of datacenters, super-computers, communications products, and other digital devices
• Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first IC in 1959
• In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove, resign from Fairchild semiconductors
• Founded their own company Intel (Integrated Electronics)
• The first microprocessor invented was of a 4 bit, after that 8 bit, 16bit ,32 bit & 64 bit are founded
• 4-bit microprocessor

  • Intel 4004
  • Intel 4040
• 8-bit microprocessor

  • Intel 8008
  • Intel 8080
  • Intel 8085
• 16-bit microprocessor

  • Intel 8086
  • Intel 8088
  • Intel 80186 & 80188
  • Intel 80286
• 32-bit microprocessor

  • Intel 80386
  • Intel pentium
  • Intel pentium pro
  • Intel pentium II
  • Intel pentium II xeon
  • Intel pentiium III
  • Intel pentium IV
  • Intel dual core
• 64-bit microprocessors

  • Intel core 2
  • Intel core i7
  • Intel core i5
  • Intel core i3
• MPU (CPU)

  • Read Instructions
  • Process binary data
• Storage Device

  • Addresses
  • Registers
• Major Categories

  • Read/Write Memory
  • Read only Memory
• Input Devices

  • Switches and Keypads
  • Provide binary information to the MPU
• Output Devices

  • LEDs and LCDs
  • Receive binary information from the MPU
• Data bus

  • Bidirectional
  • transfer binary data and instructions
• Address Bus

  • Unidirectional
  • Memory and I/O addresses
• The MPU communicates with memory and I/O using the system bus
• Control lines

  • Read and write timing signals
• Microcontroller

  • A self-contained system in which a processor, support, memory, and i/o are all contained in a single package
  • A small computer system on a single IC
• History of MCU

  • First used in 1975 (Intel 8048)
  • the introduction of EEPROM in 1993, allowed microcontrollers to be electrically erased
  • The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using flash memory
• MCU architecture

  • Memory - RAM ,ROM ,Store data and code
  • CPU - mathematical and logical operation. - memory units are called register
• Microcomputer Programming Languages

  Three main types:

  • Machine Language • Assembly Language • High-level Language
• Machine Language

  • a program written for adding two numbers using the Intel 8086
• Assembly Language

  Each line includes four fields:

  • Label field

  • Instruction, mnemonic, or op-code field

  • Operand field

  • Comment field
• One Pass Assembler -goes through the assembly language program once and translates it into a machine language program
• Two Pass Assembler -scans the assembly language program twice. In the first pass, this assembler creates a symbol table.
• Macroassembler- translates a program written in macrolanguage into the machine language. This assembler lets the programmer define all instruction sequences using macros
• Cross Assembler- typically resident in a processor and assembles programs for another for which it is written.
• Resident Assembler- assembles programs for a processor in which it is resident.
• Meta-assembler- can assemble programs for many different types of processors