Biomolecules

• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharide units joined together.
• Hydrolysis breaks down peptides into individual amino acids.
• The complex and precise process of protein folding is essential for a protein's function and role in the cell.
• Protein folding involves hydrogen bonding, disulfide bonds, ionic interactions, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions.
• It is mediated by the interactions between amino acid side chains and formation of hydrogen bonds that form secondary structure elements like alpha helices and beta sheets.
• The three-dimensional structure of proteins is determined by the sequence of amino acids.
• Protein folding involves the tertiary structure acquisition of a protein after translation.
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls and provides structural support.
• Starch is the storage form of glucose found in plants, consisting of amylose (unbranched) and amylopectin (branched).
• Cellulose is an insoluble polysaccharide that forms the cell walls of plant cells.
• Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch, with more branches than amylopectin.
• Proteins can be broken down by hydrolyzing the peptide bonds between amino acid residues, releasing smaller polypeptides or single amino acids.
• Nucleic acids store genetic information and carry out protein synthesis.
• Proteins can be classified based on their structure, including primary (sequence), secondary (hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms), tertiary (folded shape), and quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
• Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy barriers.
• Enzymes play important roles in metabolism by catalyzing chemical reactions that break down molecules or build them up from smaller components.
• Misfolded proteins can lead to diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, and Huntington's disease.
• Enzyme activity depends on factors like temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and cofactors/coenzymes.
• Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional shape of a folded polypeptide chain.
• Quaternary structure describes how multiple polypeptide chains interact with one another to form functional proteins.
• Amino acids have different properties due to their unique chemical structures.
• Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits within a single protein molecule.
• Amino acids are classified based on their chemical properties as polar or nonpolar.
• Glycogen is a storage molecule made up of glucose units linked together with glycosidic bonds.
• Polar amino acids have an electrically charged region (R group) with a dipole moment, while nonpolar amino acids do not have any charge.
• Starch is a storage molecule composed of two types of polymers - amylose (linear) and amylopectin (branched).
• Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch, with similar chemical composition but different branching patterns.
• Glycogen is a branched polysaccharide used as a short-term energy store in animals.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed themselves.
• Digestive enzymes break down complex molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins into simpler compounds that can be absorbed and used by the body.
• RNA carries out protein synthesis and has a single-stranded structure.
• DNA contains the genetic code for all living organisms and is composed of two strands twisted into a double helix structure.
• The four levels of protein structure are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Primary structure refers to the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
• Secondary structure involves local folding patterns formed through interactions between different parts of the same polypeptide chain.
• The three-dimensional structures of enzymes determine their specificity and activity.
• Denaturation refers to the loss of native conformation due to changes in temperature, pH, or other factors.
• DNA stores hereditary information as a sequence of nucleotides.
• The three main types of nucleotides found in DNA are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is similar to DNA but has ribose instead of deoxyribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine.