Anaphy

• Anatomy investigates body structure
• Physiology investigates processes and functions
• Human Physiology studies the human organism
• Systemic Physiology studies body organ-systems
• Cellular Physiology studies body cells
• Importance of Anatomy and Physiology:

  • Understand how the body responds to stimuli, environmental changes, environmental cues, diseases, and injury
• Types of Anatomy:

  • Systemic: studies body organ-systems
  • Regional: studies body regions (medical schools)
  • Surface: studies external features, for example, bone projections
  • Anatomical imaging: using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
• Structural and Functional Organization:

  • Chemical level: atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
  • Cellular level: cells are basic units of life with compartments and organelles like mitochondria and nucleus
  • Tissues: group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular substances they release (Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous)
  • Organs: two or more tissue types acting together to perform function(s) (Examples: stomach, heart, liver)
  • Organ-System: group of organs contributing to some function (Example: digestive system, reproductive system)
• • Organism: all organ systems working together, includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal bacteria
• Characteristics of Life:

  • Organization: functional interrelationships between parts
  • Metabolism: sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism, ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
  • Responsiveness: ability to sense and respond to environmental changes, includes both internal and external environments
  • Growth: can increase in size, size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
  • Development: changes in form and size, changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized (differentiation)
• • Reproduction: formation of new cells or new organisms, generation of new individuals, tissue repair
• 2. Control center: receives receptor signal, establishes set point, sends signal to effector

  3. Effector: directly causes change in variable
• Homeostasis:

  • Maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in the external or internal environment
  • Variables: measures of body properties that may change in value (Examples: body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, blood cell counts, respiratory rate)
  • Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point
  • Set point: normal or average value of a variable
  • Negative feedback is the main mechanism used in homeostatic regulation
  • Components of feedback:

  1. Receptor: detects changes in variable
• Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the response
• System response causes progressive deviation away from set point, outside of normal range
• Some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
• Example of positive feedback: childbirth
• Negative feedback mechanisms are unable to maintain homeostasis in situations generally associated with injury or disease
• Anatomical position:

  • Person standing erect with face and palms forward
  • All relational descriptions are based on the anatomical position, regardless of body orientation
• Directional Terms:

  • Superior: above
  • Inferior: below
  • Anterior: front (also ventral)
  • Posterior: back (also dorsal)
  • In four-legged animals, ventral (belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior and posterior in humans
• Directional Terms:

  • Medial: close to midline
  • Lateral: away from midline
  • Proximal: close to point of attachment
  • Distal: far from point of attachment
  • Superficial: structure close to the surface
  • Deep: structure toward the interior of the body
• Body Regions:

  • Upper limbs: upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
  • Lower limbs: thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
  • Central region: head, neck, trunk
• Body Planes:

  • Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and left parts
  • Median plane: a sagittal plane along the midline that divides the body into equal left and right halves
  • Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that separates the body into superior and inferior parts
  • Frontal plane: a vertical plane that separates the body into anterior and posterior parts
• Body Cavities:

  • Dorsal Body cavity:
  • Encloses the organs of the nervous system
  • Cranial cavity: contains the brain
  • Vertebral Canal: contains the spinal cord
  • Ventral Body cavity:
  • Contains the majority of internal organs (viscera)
  • Divided into:
  • Thoracic cavity
  • Abdominopelvic cavity
  • Abdominopelvic cavity divided into:
  • Abdominal cavity
  • Pelvic cavity
• Body Cavities:

  • Thoracic cavity:
  • Space within chest wall and diaphragm
  • Contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
  • Mediastinum:
  • Space between lungs
  • Contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
  • Abdominal cavity:
  • Space between diaphragm and pelvis
  • Contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys
  • Pelvic cavity:
  • Space within pelvis
  • Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, part of large intestine
• Serous Membranes:

  • Line trunk cavities, cover organs in the ventral body cavity
  • Structure:
  • Visceral serous membrane covers organs
  • Parietal serous membrane lines the walls of the cavities
  • Cavity: a fluid-filled space between the membranes
• Serous Membranes:

  • Cavity Name: Pericardial cavity
  • Membrane Name: Pericardium
  • Cavity Name: Pleural Cavity
  • Membrane Name: Pleura
  • Cavity Name: Peritoneal Cavity
  • Membrane Name: Peritoneum
• Pericardium:

  • Visceral pericardium covers heart
  • Parietal pericardium thick, fibrous
  • Pericardial cavity reduces friction
• Pleura:

  • Visceral pleura covers lungs
  • Parietal pleura lines inner wall of thorax
  • Pleural cavity reduces friction and adheres lungs to thoracic wall
• Peritoneum:

  • Visceral peritoneum covers, anchors organs
  • Double layers called mesenteries
  • Parietal peritoneum lines inner wall of abdominopelvic cavity
  • Peritoneal cavity reduces friction
• Chemistry is defined as the study of matter and the changes it undergoes
• Chemistry is relevant to anatomy and physiology as it helps us understand the chemical processes happening within the human body
• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass, which can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas
• Mass is the amount of matter in an object
• Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object
• An element is the simplest form of matter, examples include C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl
• An atom is the smallest particle of an element, consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons
• Atomic number is the number of protons in each atom, while mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in each atom
• Subatomic particles of an atom include protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral charge), and electrons (negative charge)
• Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an atom to attract electrons, and it determines the type of bond two atoms will form