UNIT 2

• competition -> a social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others

  cooperation -> a social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal

  *need both to be successful
• Triplett's cyclists (1898): cyclists were faster in competition than alone racing against the clock

  take-away: face-to-face competition can enhance performance
• the competition process:

  1. stage 1 -> objective competitive situation
  2. ex. individual's past performance or someone's else's performance
  3. stage 2 -> subjective competitive situation
  4. how someone perceives accepts, appraises, stage 1
  5. stage 3 -> response
  6. can approach or avoid situation
  7. stage 4 -> consequence
  8. can be (+) or (-)
  9. how athlete perceives this stage is more important than objective outcome
• IS COMPETITION GOOD OR BAD:

  • neither
  • can produce better performance than performing alone due to:
  • increased effort
  • more enjoyment
  • increased muscle activity
• IS COMPETITION GOOD OR BAD:

  • sherif and sherif (1969) summer camp (field) studies:
  • competition can be reduced through cooperative efforts to achieve superordinate goals
  • superordinate goals -> a goal that can be attained only if the members of two or more groups work together by pooling their skills, efforts, and resources
• GUIDELINES FOR BALANCING COMPETITION AND COOPERATION:

  1. blend the two when teaching and coaching physical skills
  2. individualize instruction to meet each person's needs
  3. when competition leads to fierce rivalry, use superordinate goals to get the groups together
  4. provide (+) feedback and encouragement to students and athletes regardless of the outcomes of the competition
  5. stress cooperation to produce trust and open communication
• motivation -> the direction and intensity of effort

  • direction of effort -> refers to whether one seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to situations
  • intensity of effort -> how much effort an individual puts forth in a situation
• VIEWS OF MOTIVATION:

  • trait-centered view -> motivated behavior is primarily a function of individual characteristics
  • situation-centered view -> motivation level is determined primarily by situation
  • interactional view -> motivated behavior results from the interaction of participant factors and situational factors
• which view of motivation is most complex and best view to describe motivation?

  interactional view
• 7 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:

  1. self-determination
  2. attribution
  3. achievement goal
  4. competence motivation
  5. theory of sport commitment
  6. dualistic model of passion
  7. theory of planned behavior
• SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY

  • strive for intrinsic motivation
  • is the macro theory of intrinsic motivation
  • is the most complex
  • enjoy competition, focus on having fun, and want to learn skills
• self-determination theory has 3 subtheories:

  1. cognitive evaluation theory
  2. basic psychological needs theory
  3. organismic integration theory
• COGNITIVE EVALUATION (SELF-DETERMINATION):

  • evaluates on what causes intrinsic motivation
  • used to explain variability in I.M.
  • components of this theory:
  • (1) controlling aspect
  • what causes a person's behavior
  • (2) informational aspect
  • affecting perceived competence
• BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS (SELF-DETERMINATION)

  • 3 components:
  • (1) autonomy
  • (2) competence
  • (3) relatedness
  • *having none of these = low autonomy
• ORGANISMIC INTEGRATION (SELF-DETERMINATION):

  • looking at extrinsic motivation
  • 2 components:
  • (1) internalization
  • how well the value of an activity is felt
  • (2) integration
  • the process of individual transformation from external regulation to their own self-regulated version
• ATTRIBUTION THEORY:

  • focuses on how people explain their successes and failures
  • process:
  • such causes affect expectations of future success or failure, and emotional reactions
  • then, expectations affect future achievement motivation
• ATTRIBUTION THEORY:

  • 3 categories:
  • (1) stability
  • factor is permanent or unstable
  • ex. luck
  • (2) locus of causality
  • factor that is either internal or external to individuals
  • ex. effort
  • (3) locus of control
  • factor that is either under or is not under individuals' control
  • ex. individuals' plan
• 4 COMBINATIONS BTWN THE 1ST TWO COMPONENTS:

  1. internal; stable
  2. ex. talent
  3. internal; unstable
  4. ex. effort
  5. external; stable
  6. ex. task
  7. external; unstable
  8. ex. luck
• ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY:

  • basic premise: motivated behavior is influenced by our goal orientation
  • people are motivated by one's interpretation of what it takes to achieve success.
  • 3 factors:
  • (1) conception of ability
  • (2) goal orientation
  • (3) motivational climate
• ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY:

  1. conception of ability
  2. can differentiate btwn effort, luck, and ability at age 12
  3. goal orientation:
  4. personal definition of success that predisposes one to act in a task/ego manner
  5. task-oriented
  6. ego-oriented
  7. motivational climate:
  8. social and environmental factors that highlight a task/ego manner
• ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY:

  • each component interacts with each other which is how we get to motivated behavior
• ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY:

  behavioral predictions table

  • task-oriented goal
  • (high perceived ability) challenging task + high effort = high persistence
  • (low perceived ability ) challenging task + high effort = high persistence
  • ego-oriented goal
  • (high perceived ability) challenging task + high effort = high persistence
  • (low perceived ability) too easy/too challenging task + low effort = low persistence
• does task-oriented or ego-oriented have better outcomes?

  task
• who will choose challenging tasks, put forth high effort, and high persistence?

  1. ego goal orientation and has high perceived ability
  2. ego orientation and has low perceived ability
  3. task goal orientation and has high perceived ability
  4. task goal orientation and has low perceived ability

  1,3,4
• COMPETENCE MOTIVATION THEORY:

  • harter (1978, 1981)
  • extended and refined White's model to be empirically testable
  • basic premise
  • people are motivated to feel worthy or competent
• COMPETENCE MOTIVATION THEORY:

  • 5 factors that predict motivation
  • social context
  • competence
  • success/failure
  • perception of control
  • affective and emotional states
• THEORY OF SPORT COMMITMENT:

  • 5 factors that contribute to sport commitment
  • (1) sport enjoyment (+)
  • (2) involvement alternatives (-)
  • (3) personal investments (+)
  • (4) social constraints (+)
  • (5) involvement opportunities (+)
• what is the strongest factor that contributes to sport commitment?

  sport enjoyment
• the theory of sport commitment can predict motivation and what else?

  burnout
• DUALISTIC MODEL OF PASSION:

  • 3 factors
  • activity selection -> preference for the chosen activity over other activities
  • activity valuation -> subjective importance given to the activity by the person
  • internalization -> process takes place in an autonomous fashion
  • most important
• DUALISTIC MODEL OF PASSION:

  internalization

  • harmonious passion: a strong desire to freely engage in an activity as it becomes part of one's identity (can control)
  • ex. -> declining to play softball b/c you have to study for a test
  • obsessive passion: an uncontrollable desire to participate in an activity that doesnt become part of one's identity
  • ex. -> playing your sport when you know you should study for a bit
  • can be problematic
• THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR

  • for exercise and physical activity
  • *perceived behavioral control has a direct and indirect effect on intention and behavior
• SELF-CONFIDENCE

  • 2 kinds
  • (1) trait self-confidence -> the degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed
  • stable
  • (2) state self-confidence -> the belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed
  • unstable
• COACHING EXPECTATIONS AND ATHLETES' PERFORMANCE

  4 stages

  1. coaches form expectations
  2. coaches expectations influence their behavior
  3. coaches behavior affect athletes' performance
  4. athletes performance confirms coaches original expectations
• stage 1 of coaching expectations and athletes' performance

  • coaches form expectations based on:
  • personal cues
  • ex. race, body size, gender
  • performance information
  • ex. skills test, practice behavior, past accomplishments
• COACHING EXPECTATIONS AND ATHLETES' PERFORMANCE

  at what stage is the coach influencing the confidence of players?

  3
• COACHING EXPECTATIONS AND ATHLETES' PERFORMANCE STUDY

  • empirical past study (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1966)
  • teacher expectations and students' IQ
  • results: children in the academic bloomer group showed significantly higher gains in IQ than the control group
  • this study ties in with stage 1
• the model of sports confidence only applies for SPORTS settings
• SELF-EFFICACY

  • a situation-specific form of self-confidence
  • ex. confidence on low pitch but not on a high pitch
• self-efficacy theory is a subset of the social cognitive theory