Relationships

Created by

Tilly

Cards (107)

Relationships are the connections we form with other people.
They are often the most important aspect of a person's life.
The evolutionary approach looks at how behaviour has evolved and the function that behaviours may have served in the past.
what is sexual selection?
Sexual selection is a process by which characteristics that lead to increased reproductive success are passed to offspring in genes.
sexual selection
Some species have features that don’t give a survival advantage.
Some characteristics are a sign of genetic fitness.
Some characteristics are adaptive and provide a competitive advantage for reproduction.
what is anisogamy?
differences in male and female gametes.
A consequence of anisogamy is that there tend to be more reproductively viable males than females.
what is intrasexual selection?
occurs when members of one sex compete for access to the other sex
what is intersexual selection? 
occurs when members of one sex choose from the available mates
Pawlowski & Dunbar (1999/2001)
Analysed adverts from a newspaper dating column.
They found that:
Most of the advertisers stated their age and a preferred age range for a prospective partner.
Men sought younger females, while females sought older males.
24% of women emphasised a preference for wealth.
35% of women emphasised the importance of commitment.
Over half the women requested social skills such as a sense of humour.
Just under half of the males referred to physical attractiveness.
Sexual Selection and Male Preference
Female fertility is linked to youth.
The evolutionary approach would suggest that males who favoured young females would leave more successful offspring.
Therefore, we would expect that males to be sensitive to this in their choice of partner.
Sexual Selection and Male Preference
Cunningham (1986) investigated what types of female face males found attractive.
He found men were most attracted to features associated with youth:
Large eyes
Small noses
Small chins
Sexual Selection and Male Preference
Perrett & Penton-Voak (1997-99) carried out research that allowed computerised female faces to be made more masculine or feminine.
When asked to make the faces as attractive as possible, 95%of PPTs made them more feminine.
Sexual Selection and Male Preference
The hourglass body shape emphasises larger breasts (to feed offspring) and wider hips (for easier childbirth).
The hourglass body shape also indicates a woman has passed the age of puberty and is unlikely to be pregnant.
Sexual Selection and Male Preference
Singh (1993) found a preference for a waist:hip ratio of 0.7 across a range of cultures.
However, Marlowe & Westman (2001) found that in Western cultures, men preferred slimmer women (smaller waist:hip ratio).
Sexual Selection and Mate Choice
Pawlowski & Dunbar (1999/2001)
Analysed adverts from a newspaper dating column.
They found that:
Most of the advertisers stated their age and a preferred age range for a prospective partner.
Men sought younger females, while females sought older males.
24% of women emphasised a preference for wealth.
35% of women emphasised the importance of commitment.
Over half the women requested social skills such as a sense of humour.
Just under half of the males referred to physical attractivenes
Sexual Selection and Female Preference
Buss (1989)
Carried out a survey of female partner choice across 33 countries in 5 continents.
Women valued the financial capacity of a partner more than males in all 33 countries.
Sexual Selection and Female Preference
Do females prefer masculine males?
Perret & Rowland (1996) found that increasing masculinity made males less attractive to females as they appeared less kind.
Slightly feminine male faces were preferred as they were seen as more honest and emotional.
However, preference seems to vary during the menstrual cycle.
Sexual Selection and Mate Choice
Some characteristics seem to be consistent in males and females.
Symmetrical faces
Long legs
These may be a signal of health and healthy development, like the peacock's tail.
Good looks might equal good genes.
Human Reproductive Behaviour
Other female primates display their fertility.
Human females have concealed ovulation.
This may have led to the development of the pair-bond, as males are uncertain when a female is fertile.
Human Reproductive Behaviour
Trivers (1972).
Put forward a parental investment theory that argued sexual selection is the key factor influencing reproductive behaviour.
He argued these behaviours come from the different amount of parental investment by males and females.
Evaluation - evolutionary explanation
Sexual selection provides an explanation for differences in reproductive behaviour between males and females.
However, these are not seen as conscious or deliberate strategies, they are just those that have been selected because they brought reproductive success.
Evaluation - evolutionary explanation
Homosexuality?
Is partner choice in homosexual relationships based on factors such as genetic fitness?
Lawson et al (2004) found that the preferences of homosexual men and women differ in the same way as heterosexual men and women.
Men emphasised physical attractiveness, women emphasised resources.
Evaluation - evolutionary explanation
There is a great deal of research to support the idea of female choosiness.
However, assuming that there is one universal strategy for females and another for males is simplistic.
Both males and females adopt similar strategies when seeking a long-term partner (Buss & Schmitt, 2016).
Evaluation - evolutionary explanation
Fletcher et al (2004) found three ‘dimensions’ that guide the preferences of both men and women in long-term relationships:
Warmth-trustworthiness: showing care and intimacy.
Vitality-attractiveness: signs of health and reproductive fitness.
Status-resources: being socially prominent and financially sound.
Evaluation - evolutionary explanation
Evolutionary theories overlook the importance of social and cultural factors.
Dunbar et al (1999) suggested that cultural practices are based on evolution.
However, cultural practices have changed rapidly over the last century.
Evaluation - evolutionary explanation
The advent of the contraceptive pill in the 1960s led to the sexual revolution and changing moral codes.
Women in modern, Western societies are now freer to choose their own moral code in relation to sexual behaviour.
Reproductive success is not necessarily the goal for many individuals.
Attraction
Several factors have been found to be important in attraction:
Physical attractiveness
Proximity – the opportunity to meet.
Familiarity – do we feel we know them?
Similarity – are they like us, for example in attitudes or social background?
what is the matching hypothesis?
Suggests we seek partners of a similar level of attractiveness to ourselves rather than just the most attractive.
This implies we take our own attractiveness into account when seeking a romantic partner.
Attraction – Physical Attractiveness
The Matching Hypothesis
Walster et al (1966) – the computer dance.
Male and female students were invited to a dance.
They completed a questionnaire about themselves and were rated for attractiveness by objective observers.
They were paired randomly but were told they had been matched with a partner by a computer.
The most liked partners were also the most attractive.
Attraction – Physical Attractiveness
The Matching Hypothesis
Berscheid et al (1971) replicated the study, but this time allowed each PPT to select their partner.
PPTs chose partners that matched them in attractiveness.
Attraction – Physical Attractiveness
The Matching Hypothesis
Murstein (1972).
Collected photos of 99 dating couples and compared these with photos of randomly paired couples.
The real couples were consistently rated as more alike in level of attractiveness.
Attraction – Physical Attractiveness
The Matching Hypothesis
McKillip & Riedel (1983).
Found pairs of friends were also closely matched in terms of attractiveness.
Feingold (1988) found this was more significant in pairs of male friends than female friends.
Attraction – Physical Attractiveness
The Halo Effect
Describes how one trait can have a disproportionate effect on our perception of other traits.
We have preconceived ideas about the personality traits of attractive people.
This is the physical attractiveness stereotype.
Dion et al (1972) found that physically attractive people are also assumed to be kind, strong, sociable and successful.
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
Proposed by Kerckhoff & Davies (1962)
States that a series of factors progressively reduces the number of possible romantic partners.
This allows people to distinguish between the ‘field of availables’ and the ‘field of desirables’.
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
Filter 1: Social and demographic variables.
Age, social class, level of education, religion, ethnicity etc.
Also affected by proximity.
People from very different backgrounds are filtered out.
This often acts without people being aware
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
Filter 2: Similarity.
Similarity of attitudes, interests and values.
Partners in the early stages of a relationship need to agree on basic values.
This leads to better, deeper communication.
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
Filter 3: Complementarity
The ability of romantic partners to meet each other's needs.
How well do they work as a couple?
Opposites attract – complementarity gives partners the feeling that they form a whole.
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
This was developed when the world was different to now.
We can now meet and communicate with more people reducing the importance of proximity.
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
Other demographic factors remain important.
Gruber-Baldini et al (1995) found people more similar in education level at the start of their relationship are more likely to stay together.
They also found people become more similar in attitudes as time progresses.
Attraction – Similarity
Filter Theory
Actual similarity may be less important than perceived similarity.
Montoya et al (2008) found actual similarity only affected attraction in short-term lab studies.
How similar people believed themselves to be was more important in real-world studies.