biology grade 11

• the nucleus is the control center of the cell
• mitochondria are the powerhouse of cells, they produce ATP through aerobic respiration
• cytokinesis is the separation of cytoplasm into two new cells during cell division.
• chromatin - DNA, RNA, proteins that make up chromosomes
• mitosis is the process by which cells divide to produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
• the three types of cell division are mitosis, cytokinesis, and meiosis
• chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which absorbs light energy to convert it into chemical energy (glucose)
• cell wall - provides support and protection against pathogens
• vacuole - stores water, waste products, pigments, enzymes, and other substances
• ribosome - site of protein synthesis
• zygote = fertilized egg
• gamete = sperm or egg
• nucleus - contains genetic material (DNA) and controls all activities within the cell
• nucleus - contains genetic material (DNA) that controls all activities within the cell
• meiosis produces haploid cells with half the number of chromosomes as diploid cells
• chloroplast - organelle found only in plant cells; site of photosynthesis
• Meiosis involves two rounds of division, resulting in four genetically different daughter cells, while Mitosis results in two genetically identical daughter cells.
• In mitosis, sister chromatids separate during anaphase, forming two sets of chromosomes at the end of the process.
• The stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis, and interphase.
• Mitosis is involved in growth and repair processes, while Meiosis is involved in sexual reproduction.
• mitosis is used to produce identical daughter cells from one parent cell, while meiosis is used to produce genetically diverse gametes from a single parent cell.
• dominant allele: coded by capital letter
• recessive allele: coded by lowercase letter
• homozygous dominant: two copies of the same dominant allele (AA)
• heterozygous: one copy of dominant allele and one recessive allele (Aa)
• homozygous recessive: both copies of the gene are same (lower case)
• phenotype: physical characteristics
• An individual who has two different alleles of a gene is

  called heterozygous for that trait
• An individual who has two identical alleles of a gene is

  called homozygous for that trait
• In incomplete dominance, the offspring may have pink flowers, showing a blending of the white and purple traits.
• In co-dominance, the offspring may have flowers with both white and purple patches, showing both traits equally
• A dominant allele will always mask or hide a recessive allele
• never put a trait on the y chromosome
• Distinguish between spermatogenesis vs. oogenesis

  Spermatogenesis is the process of producing sperm cells in the testes, while oogenesis is the process of producing egg cells in the ovaries
• Meiosis

  1. Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs.

  2. Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.

  3. Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles.

  4. Telophase I: Chromosomes reach poles, nuclear envelope may or may not reform, and cytokinesis occurs.

  5. Prophase II: Chromosomes condense again if the nuclear envelope reformed.

  6. Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.

  7. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

  8. Telophase II: Chromatids reach poles, nuclear envelope reforms, and cytokinesis occurs again, resulting in four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
• What is DNA/RNA?
• Distinguish between haploid and diploid

  Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent, while haploid cells have only one set of chromosomes
• Mitosis

  1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down.

  2. Metaphase: Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.

  3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

  4. Telophase: Chromatids decondense, spindle fibers disassemble, nuclear envelope reforms.

  5. Cytokinesis: Cell divides into two daughter cells
• Causes of genetic diversity in meiosis

  Genetic diversity in meiosis is caused by crossing over (exchange of genetic material) between homologous chromosomes and random assortment of chromosomes during anaphase 1
• What are DNA and RNA made of?