Intro to Anatomy

• Anatomy, describes the structures of the body, what they are made of, where they are located  and associated structures
• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines

  large, visible structures

  • Surface anatomy: exterior features
  • Regional anatomy: body areas
  • Sectional anatomy: cross sections
  • Systemic anatomy: organ systems
  • Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
  • Developmental anatomy: from conception to adulthood, including embryology
• Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules

  • Cytology: study of cells

  • Histology: study of tissues
• Human physiology

  • Cell physiology: functions of cells
  • Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
  • Systemic physiology: functions of organ systems
  • Pathological physiology: effects of diseases on organs or systems
• A patient may present with

  – Signs (such as a fever)

  – Symptoms (such as tiredness)
• Physicians use the scientific method to reach a diagnosis by evaluating observations

  – Form a hypothesis

  – Test the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data
• Levels of organization

  Chemical level

  – Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter

  – Molecules consist of groups of atoms

  Cellular level

  – Cells are the smallest living units in the body

  Tissue level

  – A tissue is a group of cells working together

  Organ level

  – Organs are made of two or more tissues working together

  Organ system level

  – An organ system is a group of interacting organs

  – Humans have 11 organ systems

  Organism level

  – An individual life form is an organism
• What is the correct sequence of levels of organization in the human body?

  Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, Organism
• Integumentary system

  – Major organs: Skin, Hair, Sweat glands, Nails

  – Functions

  • Protects against environmental hazards

  • Provides sensory information

  • Helps regulate body temperature
• Muscular

  Major organs: Skeletal muscles and associated tendons

  Functions

  • Provides protection and support for other tissues

  • Generates heat that maintains body temperature

  • Provides movement
• Nervous

  – Major organs: Brain and spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs

  – Functions

  • Directs immediate responses to stimuli

  • Coordinates or moderates other organ systems

  • Provides and interprets sensory information
• Endocrine

  – Major organs

  • Pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands 

  • Endocrine tissues in other systems

  • Pancreas and gonads

  – Functions

  • Directs long-term changes in other organ systems

  • Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use 

  • Controls many structural and functional changes during development
• Cardiovascular 

  – Major organs: Heart, Blood, Blood vessels

  – Functions

  • Distributes blood cells, water, nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

  • Distributes heat to control body temperature
• Lymphatic

  – Major organs: Spleen, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes, Tonsils

  – Functions

  • Defends against infection and disease

  • Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
• Respiratory

  – Major organs

  • Nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea,

  • bronchi, lungs, alveoli 

  – Functions

  • Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs)

  • Provides oxygen to bloodstream

  • Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream 

  • Produces sounds for communication
• Digestive

  – Major organs

  • Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

  – Functions

  • Processes and digests food

  • Absorbs and conserves water

   • Stores energy reserves

  • Absorbs nutrients
• Urinary– Major organs

  • Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra 

  – Functions

  • Excretes waste products from the blood

  • Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced

  • Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination

  • Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH
• Male reproductive 

  – Major organs

  • Testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum

  – Functions

  • Produces male sex cells (sperm), seminal fluids, and hormones

  • Sexual intercourse
• Female reproductive 

  – Major organs

  • Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands 

  – Functions

  • Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones

  • Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery

  • Provides milk to nourish newborn infant

  • Sexual intercourse
• Medical Terminology

  – Terms related to the body in health and disease

  – Most commemorative names, or eponyms, have been replaced by precise terms
• Surface anatomy

  • Locating structures on or near the body surface
  • Structures that can be felt or palpated – this is helpful with physical assessment
  • Anatomical directions help map findings
• Anatomical landmarks

  • Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward, this is used in digital charting formats and diagrams
  • Supine: lying down, face up
  • Prone: lying down, face down
• Anatomical regions

  – Abdominopelvic quadrants 

  – Abdominopelvic regions
• Anatomical directions– Reference terms based on subject
• Abdominopelvic quadrants:

  • Right Upper and Left Upper Quadrant
  • Right Lower and Left Lower Quadrant
• Abdominopelvic regions

  Right - epigastric - left hypochondriac region

  Right - umbilical - left lumbar region

  Right - hypogastric - left inguinal region
• Superior towards the head

  Inferior away from the head
• Sectional anatomy – A section is a slice through a three-dimensional object

  • Used to visualize internal organization 

  • Important in radiological techniques

  – MRI, PET, CT
• Sectional plane– A single view along a two-dimensional flat surface 
• Frontal (coronal) plane

  • Vertical plane that divides body into anterior and posterior portions

  • A cut in this plane is a frontal section (coronal section)
• Sagittal plane

  • Vertical plane dividing body into left and right portions
  • A cut in this plane is a sagittal section
  • Midsagittal plane lies in the middle
  • Parasagittal plane is offset from the middle
• Transverse plane divides body into superior and inferior portions

  • A cut in this plane is called a transverse section(cross section)
• Essential functions of body cavities

  1. Protect organs from shocks and impacts

  2. Permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs
• Ventral body cavity (coelom) 

  – Divided by the diaphragm

  • Thoracic cavity

  • Abdominopelvic cavity 

  Body cavities contain viscera (internal organs)
• Serous membrane (serosa)

  – Lines body cavities and covers organs 

  – Consists of parietal and visceral layers

  • Parietal serosa lines cavity

  • Visceral serosa covers organ

  e.g. The lungs and the heart have visceral and parietal membranes.
• Thoracic cavity

  – Right and left pleural cavities

  • Contain right and left lungs

   – Mediastinum

  • Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus

  • Lower portion contains pericardial cavity

  – The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
• The heart projects into the pericardial cavity with serous pericardium surrounding it to provide air cushioning

  
• Abdominopelvic cavity

  – Peritoneal cavity — chamber within abdominopelvic cavity

  • Parietal peritoneum lines the internal body wall

  • Visceral peritoneum covers the organs 
• Abdominopelvic cavity

  – Abdominal cavity — superior portion

  • Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones 

  • Retroperitoneal space

  • Contains digestive organs

  – Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall

  – Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract
• Abdominopelvic cavity

  – Pelvic cavity — inferior portion

  • Medial to pelvic bones

  • Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder