key terms

• Abstract:

  • First section in a psychological report or journal
  • Includes a summary of aims, hypothesis, method, results, and conclusions
  • Provides an overview of the entire report
• Aim of a study:

  • General statement explaining the purpose of the research
• Bar chart:

  • Used to show frequency data for discrete variables
  • Example: used to plot mean scores for conditions A & B separately
• Structured observations:

  • Psychologists decide which specific behaviors to examine
  • Operationalize behavior through the use of behavioral categories
  • Involves breaking target behavior (e.g., aggression) into observable and measurable components (e.g., hitting, kicking)
• Bias:

  • Influence, typically in an unfair direction
  • In sampling context, certain groups may be under- or over-represented, limiting generalizability of study findings
• BPS Code of Ethics:

  • Produced by British Psychological Society
  • Details general principles for using human participants in research contexts
  • Focuses on respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity
• Case studies:

  • Detailed investigations of an individual or small group
  • Usually regarding an unusual phenomenon or biographical event
  • Due to small sample, allows in-depth analysis
• Chi-squared test:

  • Non-parametric statistical test of difference or association
  • Used for studies with independent groups design and nominal data
• Closed questions:

  • Restrict participant to predetermined responses
  • Generate quantitative data in questionnaire or interview
• Coding:

  • Placing qualitative data into categories
  • Example: examining portrayal of males and females in TV ads
• Concurrent validity:

  • Involves comparing a new test with an existing test of the same nature
  • Determines if both tests produce similar results
• Content analysis:

  • Analyzing qualitative data
  • Technique to transform qualitative data into quantitative data
• Correlation coefficient:

  • Measures strength of correlation between variables
  • Ranges from -1.0 (perfect negative) to +1.0 (perfect positive)
• Correlational study:

  • Non-experimental method to measure relationship between variables
  • Types: positive correlation and negative correlation
• Counterbalancing:

  • Technique to deal with order effects in repeated measures design
  • Divides participant sample to complete conditions in different orders
• Critical values:

  • Numerical values used to determine significance of statistical test results
• Demand characteristics:

  • Participants try to make sense of research and may behave in a way to support or disrupt the research
• Dependent variable (DV):

  • Variable measured by researcher
  • Affected by manipulation of independent variable (IV)
• Descriptive statistics:

  • Analyze data to describe, show, or summarize it
  • Examples: measures of central tendency and dispersion
• Directional hypothesis:

  • One-tailed hypothesis stating direction of difference or relationship
• Discussion:

  • Section of report where researcher interprets results, criticizes methodology, considers implications, and suggests applications
• Ecological validity:

  • Type of external validity
  • Refers to extent findings can be generalized to real-life settings
• Empirical method:

  • Uses objective, quantitative observation in controlled situation to test or refine theory
• Event sampling:

  • Sampling behavior in observational research
  • Observer records number of times a behavior occurs
• Experimental design:

  • Describes how participants are allocated to experimental groups
  • Types: repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs
• Extraneous variable (EV):

  • Any variable, other than IV, that might affect results
  • Important EVs become confounding variables
• Face validity:

  • Simple way to assess if something measures what it claims to measure
  • Concerned with face value
• Falsifiability:

  • Principle that a theory could only be considered scientific if it could be proven false
  • Important feature of science
• Field experiments:

  • Conducted in natural conditions
  • Researcher manipulates IV to measure effect on DV
• Generalization:

  • Applying results from a study to wider target population
  • Assumes findings from original sample apply to entire population
• Histogram:

  • Graph for continuous data
  • No space between bars due to continuous data
• Hypothesis:

  • Testable prediction about variables in a study
  • Contains IV and DV
  • Can be directional or non-directional
• Hypothesis testing:

  • Important for developing and modifying theories
  • Research tests hypotheses generated by theories
• Independent groups design:

  • Experimental design with different participants in each condition
• Random allocation:

  • Used to decide which condition each participant is assigned to
  • Ensures equal chance of assignment
• Independent variable (IV):

  • Variable manipulated by researcher
  • Assumed to have direct effect on DV
• Inter-observer reliability:

  • Extent to which multiple observers record behavior consistently
• Natural experiments:

  • Conducted in natural conditions
  • Researcher unable to manipulate IV
• Negative correlation:

  • Two variables related where one increases, the other decreases
• Nominal level data:

  • Frequency or count data in categories
  • Participants falling into specific categories