Self-Reports

• Self-Reports are the only method that allows us to gather the thoughts and feelings of participants.
• Questionnaires are paper or computer based sets of questions designed to collect information about one, or a number of topics.
• Questionnaires have two important benefits that other methods do not have:

  1. They can gather information from huge samples of people for very little effort, once they have been designed.
  2. They can assess what people think and are able to give more insight into the reasons behind people's actions than experiments or correlations. However, there is a risk of participants not telling the truth.
• Questionnaires

  Closed questions generate quantitative data. They restrict the answers given by respondents to a predetermined set of options provided by the questionnaire.
• Questionnaires

  Examples of closed questions are:

  • Yes/ no questions
  • Ticklists
  • Select the answer most applicable -make sure categories do not overlap (eg time in hours)
• Questionnaires

  Rating scales are numerical scales in which respondents can indicate the strength of their feelings towards something.
• Questionnaires- rating scales

  • likert scales- the respondent is given a statement and asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with the statements (strongly agree to strongly disagree).
• Questionnaires- rating scales

  • Semantic differential scales- the respondent rates their response by choosing from an opposing pair of descriptive words (bipolar adjectives). There are usually 5 or 7 spaces between the adjectives for participants to place a cross.
• Questionnaires

  A strength of closed questions is they produce quantitative data, which can then be summarised, presented and compared between participants or conditions.
• Questionnaires

  A weakness of closed questions is they only produce quantitative data so give no insight into the reasons behind answers given.
• Questionnaires

  • A weakness of closed questions is there is a risk of response bias- respondents may just tick yes for everything.
  • Another weakness of closed questions is there is often a limited number of choices for responses. This limits internal validity as participants may be unable to express their true opinions.
• Questionnaires

  • A strength of closed questions is they are easy for respondents to answer. Lots of data can be generated quickly.
  • Another strength of closed questions is they are easy to use when testing for reliability. The same questions can be given again at a different point in time to check for consistency (external reliability).
• Strengths of rating scales, likert scales and semantic differential scales:

  • They provide more detail than simple yes or no answers
  • They are less polarising, as they provide participants with the option to agree or disagree to an extent.
• Weaknesses of rating scales, likert scales and semantic differential scales:

  • They are subjective as people interpret ratings and terms differently
  • People may not understand the terminology of semantic differential scales
• Questionnaires

  Open questions invite the respondent to answer in any way that they want, producing qualitative data.
• Questionnaires

  The strengths of open questions are:

  • The researcher can collect qualitative data such as feelings or experiences. This gives much more insight than a closed question could.
  • Respondents are free to express themselves and their responses are not restricted. This could lead to them revealing something that was not anticipated.
• Questionnaires

  The weaknesses of open questions are:

  • Qualitative data is difficult to analyse and make comparisons between participants.
  • Participants may become bored, reducing validity.
• Questionnaires- Ethics

  • Confidentiality- they are often anonymous. This should be stated at the beginning of the questionnaire.
  • Right to withdraw- participants should be made aware they will lose their right to withdraw when submitting the questionnaire.
  • Debrief- there should be a full debrief at the end of the questionnaire.
  • Protection from harm- ways to access help on any issues that may have been raised should also be provided at the end of the questionnaire.
• Questionnaires

  Internal reliability can be checked using repeat questions in the survey, worded slightly differently. This checks for the consistency of the questionnaire within itself as respondents who give two very different impressions on repeat questions can be classed as unreliable.
• Questionnaires

  Internal reliability can be checked for using the split- half method. Scores from the two halves of the test are compared. If they have a strong positive correlation, the questionnaire can be said to be internally reliable.
• Questionnaires

  External reliability can be checked for using the test-retest method. Respondents complete the same questionnaire more than once. If their answers from separate times correlate, the questionnaire can be said to be externally reliable.
• The results from any self report are not valid if participants have answered questions dishonestly.

  In Questionnaires:

  • Evaluation apprehension (participant's concern about being tested) is potentially reduced as questionnaires are often anonymous and usually filled out in participants' own time.
  • Social desirability (participants answering questions in a way which presents them in a better light) can be reduced by filler questions, which try to limit participants' understandings of what is being investigated.
• Questionnaires

  Pilot studies are used to:

  • Check the understanding of questions
  • Check the clarity of questions
  • Make sure rating scales/ choice categories are appropriate and work OK
  • Check if the length of the questionnaire is creating boredom and that participants are answering truthfully (validity).
• Strengths of questionnaires:

  • They are quick to administer and analyse, and can target large sample sizes.
  • It is a method with high reliability.
• Weaknesses of questionnaires:

  • They cannot probe for deeper answers.
  • Responses are often limited due to closed questions, so they may not represent the respondents' views, opinions or beliefs- lowers validity.
  • There is a risk that respondents may respond to demand characteristics, leading to them not expressing their true opinions.
• Like questionnaires, interviews ask participants questions. However, in interviews the questions are asked by the researcher them self by telephone or face to face.
• The three types of interviews are:

  • Structured
  • Semi-structured
  • Unstructured
• Structured interviews:

  • The questions are predetermined.
  • The interviewer simply reads out a list of questions which have been carefully planned to elicit responses that give insight into specific behaviours/ attitudes or beliefs.
  • The researcher cannot deviate from the questions.
• Strengths of structured interviews:

  • They can be easily repeated as the questions are the same each time. This helps with checking reliability.
  • Set questions enable comparisons to be made between participants, allowing us to draw conclusions about general thoughts and beliefs among participants.
• Weaknesses of structured interviews:

  • Validity may be affected as restricted questions force an answer which may not be a true measure of an attitude.
  • Interviewer bias could occur if the researcher inadvertently influences responses through the way they ask questions. The participants could give socially desirable answers because of this.
• Unstructured interviews:

  • The interviewer goes along a with the flow of the conversation.
  • The topic of interest is introduced at the beginning of interview. It can then be taken in any direction dependent upon responses given.
  • The interview is completed guided by the participant's responses.
• Strengths of unstructured interviews:

  • The interviewer can pick up on a topic/ detail that is important to participants, helping them to gain better insight into true thoughts and feelings.
  • It allows for freedom of conversation topics meaning more information can be gathered.
• Weaknesses of unstructured interviews:

  • They may be difficult to replicate as a variety of questions are used. The analysis of data is also more complex, making comparisons between participants more difficult.
  • Interviewer bias may become influential.
• Semi structured interviews:

  • Some questions are predetermined in order to gather any specific information that is required.
  • The researcher is able to ask for clarification or follow up a set question with an unplanned question in an attempt to gather more detail.
  • It is a combination of a structured and unstructured interview.
• A strength of self reports is they are the only method that allows us to gain access to participants' thoughts and feelings.
• A weakness of self reports is there is a risk of social desirability bias. Participants want to present themselves in the most positive light, so we cannot be sure of their true thoughts and feelings. This reduces internal validity.
• Strengths of semi structured interviews:

  • Interviewer can add to predetermined questions allowing for freedom of conversation topics. We can gain more insight into true thoughts and feelings.
  • There are some predetermined questions so it is still possible to compare participants' answers.
• Weaknesses of semi structured interviews:

  • The information may be difficult to analyse due to the additional questions asked by the interviewer.
  • A variety of questions are used so it may be difficult to replicate.