2. The nature and influence of religious experience

• Who was William James?

  William James was a philosopher and psychologist.
• What do people who have religious experiences often call themselves?

  They often call themselves 'Mystics'.
• What are the characteristics of mystical experiences according to William James?

  Mystical experiences are intense and totally immersive.
• What are the four criteria that characterize all mystical religious experiences according to James?

  • Ineffable: Beyond language and cannot be accurately described.
  • Noetic: Some sort of knowledge or insight is gained.
  • Transient: The experience is temporary.
  • Passive: The experience happens to a person; they don’t make it happen.
• What is James' argument regarding the cross-cultural similarity of religious experiences?

  He argues there must be an objective explanation for the similarity, as it is improbable it is due to chance.
• What philosophical view does James hold regarding religions?

  James is a pluralist, believing all religions are true in pointing to a higher spiritual reality.
• How does James define the core of religion?

  He defines it as religious experiences, while teachings and practices are 'second hand' religion.
• What does James argue about the effects of religious experiences?

  He argues that the validity of the experience depends on its effects on people's lives.
• What philosophical view does James hold regarding religions?

  James is a pluralist, believing all religions are true.
• What case study does James use to illustrate his point about religious experiences?

  He points to the case of an alcoholic who gave up alcohol after a religious experience.
• What does James argue about the effects of religious experiences?

  He argues that the validity of the experience depends on its effects on people's lives.
• What case study does James use to illustrate his point about religious experiences?

  He uses the case study of an alcoholic who gave up alcohol after a religious experience.
• What is an alternative explanation for the cross-cultural similarity of religious experiences?

  It could be that all human brains hallucinate similarly due to evolutionary similarities.
• What does James imply about the source of power gained after a religious experience?

  He implies that the power gained is evidence for the validity of the experience.
• Why does James argue that religious experiences cannot be mere hallucinations?

  Because of their life-changing effects.
• What alternative explanation does James acknowledge for the similarity of religious experiences?

  He acknowledges a naturalistic explanation that human brains may hallucinate similarly due to evolution.
• What is a counterargument to James' pragmatism regarding hallucinations?

  Some hallucinations can also be life-changing, even if they are not real.
• How does Freud view religious experiences?

  Freud called religion an 'obsessional neurosis' stemming from psychological forces.
• How does James counter the idea that religious experiences are mere hallucinations?

  He argues that their life-changing effects indicate they cannot be mere hallucinations.
• What are the two main psychological forces Freud identifies that lead to religious experiences?

  The fear of death and the desire for eternal innocence.
• What is a criticism of James' pragmatism regarding hallucinations?

  Not all hallucinations are life-changing, which could undermine his argument.
• What does Rudolf Otto define as 'numinous' experiences?

  Numinous experiences are feelings of awe and wonder in the presence of an all-powerful being.
• What criticism does Freud face regarding his theories on religious experiences?

  His theories are seen as unscientific, overgeneralized, and overly-reductive.
• What does Otto define as the core of any true religion?

  Otto defines numinous experiences as the core of any true religion.
• What are the key components of Otto's description of numinous experiences?

  • Wholly Other: Completely different from anything human.
  • Mysterium: The indescribable mystery of the experience.
  • Tremendum: Awe and fear of a superior being.
  • Fascinans: Being drawn to the experience despite fear.
• What is the 'God helmet' and who created it?

  The 'God helmet' is a device created by neuroscientist Persinger to manipulate brain waves.
• What does Otto claim about the core of any true religion?

  He claims that numinous experiences are fundamental to true religion.
• What is Swinburne's principle of credulity?

  It argues that you should believe what you experience unless you have a reason not to.
• How does Otto's view differ from the Catholic perspective on religious experiences?

  Otto believes in direct encounters with God, while Catholics see the church as an intermediary.
• What does Swinburne argue about experiencing God?

  He argues that experiencing God should count as evidence towards belief in God.
• What is the criticism of Swinburne's argument regarding naturalistic explanations?

  Naturalistic explanations provide reasons not to believe any religious experience.
• What did Persinger create to study religious experiences?

  Persinger created a machine called the 'God helmet'.
• What does the 'God helmet' do?

  It physiologically manipulates brain waves to induce religious experiences.
• What does Freud argue about intense mystical experiences?

  He argues they are reliving childhood experiences before the ego formed.
• What is a criticism of Persinger's findings?

  Some argue that brain manipulation could be the mechanism by which God creates religious experiences.
• What is a corporate religious experience?

  A corporate religious experience is when multiple people share the same experience.
• What is a defense of Persinger's work?

  His work demonstrates that religious experiences could have a naturalistic explanation.
• What is Hume's argument regarding multiple claims of divine intervention?

  Hume argues that similar claims from different religions cancel each other out.
• What is a criticism of Otto's view on religious experiences?

  It is difficult for Otto to rule out naturalistic explanations like mental illness or drugs.
• What is Hick's view on the nature of religions?

  Hick views all religions as different cultural manifestations of the divine.