Thinking Skills AS

• A true argument includes:

  • one or more reasons and a conclusion
  • an attempt by the writer to persuade
• A claim- a statement or judgement that can be challenged without reasons to support it.
• Conclusion- a statement that the writer wants the reader to accept based on the reasons given.
• Reasons- a statement that aims to persuade the reader to accept a conclusion.
• An opinion- not supported by reasons
• Description- states what is the case, but it doesn't explain why, and doesn't persuade.
• Narrative- tells what has happened
• Explanation- doesn't seek to persuade
• Inference- the way in which a conclusion can be drawn from reasons: by examining reasons we can make an inference which will be the conclusion that we are being asked to accept.
• Intermediate conclusion- a conclusion that is formed on the way to the main conclusion, this is supported by reasons and gives support (acts as a reason to) the main conclusion.
• Counter assertion- expresses an alternative opinion which an author introduces in order to explain why it is wrong (if reasons are given it is a counter argument)
• Evidence- facts or data that supports a reason
• Example- a specific instance that illustrates a reason and makes it clearer.
• To give an analysis:

  • label elements
  • explain how they relate to each other
• Evaluating the use of evidence and examples:

  • is it precisely relevant?
  • is it sufficient?
  • is it used in a strong way?
• Appeal- a reference to something or someone in order to persuade an audience to accept a conclusion. Arguments who use them are considered weak as they engage your emotions rather than using reasons.
• Appeal to authority- referring to an expert witness or recognised authority to support a claim. ("National lottery organiser has said, these give a boost to those who receive them.")
• Appeal to Popularity- a form of argument which justifies a conclusion by its popularity ("most people are in favour of capital punishment, so the government should bring it back.")
• Appeal to Tradition- a form of argument that supports a conclusion by saying it is tradition or has always been done that way ("My family always spend Christmas together. It would be really sad to miss all that. So I'm going to have Christmas with my family.")
• Appeal to History- a form of argument that supports a prediction about the future with reference to the past ("I've always passed exams without putting in much effort, so i'll breeze through my A levels")
• Appeal to Emotion- a form of argument that attempts to support a conclusion by engaging the audience's emotions rather than by giving reasons. ("Able to defend our Island home, ride out the storm of war, outlive the menace of tyranny")
• Weak appeals, is it used:

  • to override or exclude other opinions and evidence
  • without any form of evaluation or convincing evidence
  • to take the place of logical reasons to support the conclusion
• Unstated assumption- part of an argument that is not mentioned or stated, but is needed in order for the argument to work.
• Unwarranted assumptions- claims or beliefs that possess little to no supporting evidence, things we may take for granted as true, or completely false ideas we inherited without reflection.
• Confusion necessary and sufficient conditions: "Jamal is really talented. He is an extremely fast runner. He's bound to run the sprint races at the Olympics."
• Hasty generalisation- where a conclusion is drawn based on too little evidence. ("Norman is good at Thinking Skills. Norman is a tall student. So all good Thinking Skills students are tall.")
• Sweeping generalisation- when a general rule that is generally accepted to be correct is applied incorrectly or inappropriately to a specific instance. ("There are a lot of sporty people in Year 12, as Tarquin is in Year 12 he must be very sporty.")
• Unwarranted generalisations are forms of stereotyping.
• Reasoning from wrong actions:

  • Two wrongs don't make a right
  • Tu Quoque
• Two wrongs don't make a right- this is an attempt to justify on bad action on the basis that another, different bad action is often or has been accepted.
• Tu Quoque- An attemt to justify an action on the basis that someone else is doing it too.
• Ad hominem- attacking the arguer ("We can't accept Dr Jones' point about hereditary aspect of criminal behaviour, look at her- she's a blonde woman!")
• Straw man- misrepresents or distorts an opposing view in order to dismiss it.
• Circular argument- which one of the reasons is the same as the conclusion, or an argument in which you have to assume that the conclusion is right in order for the reasons to make sense. ("We know the Pope is infallible because God says so. We know that God says so because the Pope has told us. The Pope must be right because he's infallible.")
• False dichotomy- a limited picture of the choices available in a situation in order to support one particular option, saying there is only one unpleasant alternative.