Utilitarianism

• Hedonist act utilitarianism states that actions are morally right or wrong depending on their consequences and nothing else
• According to this principle, an act is right if it maximizes what is good, and the only thing considered good is happiness
• In this theory, no one's happiness counts more than anyone else's, so an action is right if it leads to the greatest happiness of all those it affects
• Implications of utilitarianism:

  • Actions are judged not by 'type' or motive but by consequences
  • The principle provides clear moral guidance
• Bentham's principle of utility, also known as the 'greatest happiness principle', approves or disapproves of every action based on its tendency to augment or diminish the happiness of the party involved
• Utility, happiness, pleasure:

  • Utility = what is in your interests = happiness = pleasure and absence of pain
  • Felicific calculus: add up total pleasures and subtract total pains
• Discussion on utilitarianism:

  • Morality is about how to act and should be based on what motivates us
  • Is happiness the only thing that matters morally?
  • Can we add up happiness?
• John Stuart Mill on utilitarianism:

  • Fundamental moral laws maximize happiness
  • The principle of utility has influenced our moral beliefs, even if not explicitly recognized
• Quick objections and replies to utilitarianism:

  • 'Utility' means what is useful, not just what is pleasurable
  • Utilitarianism doesn't say an act is right if it makes you happy, but if it creates the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
• Objection: Utilitarianism conflicts with religious teaching

  • Reply: It is compatible with religious teachings
• Objection: Utilitarianism encourages immoral behavior

  • Reply: It condemns actions that promote short-term gain over long-term happiness
• Hedonist act utilitarianism states that actions are morally right or wrong depending on their consequences and nothing else
• According to this theory, an act is right if it maximizes what is good, and the only thing considered good is happiness
• In act utilitarianism, no one's happiness counts more than anyone else's, and an action is right if it leads to the greatest happiness of all those it affects
• One objection to act utilitarianism is the difficulty in calculating the consequences of an action
• Bentham's felicific calculus is a method to determine the consequences of actions, but preference utilitarianism might offer an advantage by focusing on the tendencies of actions rather than precise calculations
• Mill introduced the concept of secondary principles, where moral rules like 'Don't steal' are based on their tendency to produce more unhappiness than happiness
• If two secondary principles conflict, the greatest happiness principle should be applied according to Mill
• Bentham's view on happiness is that it is good regardless of whose happiness it is, emphasizing that the ability to suffer is what matters
• Singer criticizes speciesism as immoral discrimination against animals just because they are not human, arguing that important differences like reason or emotional depth are not relevant to causing suffering
• Calculating consequences for happiness becomes even harder when comparing happiness for human beings and other animals, leading to the need for a new customary morality according to Singer
• Hedonist act utilitarianism:

  • Actions are morally right or wrong depending on their consequences and nothing else
  • An act is right if it maximises what is good, which is happiness
  • No one’s happiness counts more than anyone else’s
  • An action is right if it leads to the greatest happiness of all those it affects
• Justice is the principle that each person receives their ‘due’

  • It requires that we treat equals equally
  • If what someone is due depends on some quantifiable attribute, we should treat differences proportionally
  • Justice is fairness
• 'The tyranny of the majority':

  • Should a government in a democracy simply maximize happiness, even if it overrides the happiness of the minority?
  • Can utilitarianism recognize constraints on how a minority can be treated?
• Individual liberty and rights:

  • No type of action is ruled out as immoral by utilitarianism
  • Moral rights place restrictions on how people can treat each other
  • Rights must be respected even when this does not maximize happiness
• Mill on justice:

  • At the heart of justice is the moral rights of the individual
  • Violations of justice include violating legal rights, moral rights, not giving someone what they deserve, breaking a contract or promise, failing to be impartial when required, and treating people unequally
• Perfect and imperfect duties:

  • Duties of justice are ‘perfect’: we must always fulfill them, and have no choice over when or how
  • Imperfect duties are ones not owed to specific individuals, so we have some choice in how we fulfill the obligation, e.g., to help others
• Why rights?

  • Right: the individual has a valid claim on society to protect their interests
  • Rights are primarily concerned with protection from harm and freedom
  • Rights and justice are derived from utility in the long run
• Objection to rights:

  • Rights are derived from the greatest happiness, but what if violating rights creates more happiness?
  • Reply: don’t apply utilitarianism to the conflict between rights and happiness in individual cases; rights protect permanent interests
• Rule utilitarianism:

  • Mill recommends creating rights, a kind of rule, and enforcing them even when they conflict with happiness in certain situations
  • Rule utilitarianism accords with the rule that maximizes happiness, even if individual actions may not
• Hedonist act utilitarianism:

  • Actions are morally right or wrong depending on their consequences and nothing else
  • An act is right if it maximises what is good
  • The only thing that is good is happiness
  • No one’s happiness counts more than anyone else’s
  • An action is right if it leads to the greatest happiness of all those it affects
• Partiality:

  • Everyone’s happiness counts equally
  • My happiness and the happiness of those I love have no special weight in guiding my actions
  • Utilitarianism is criticized for being too idealistic and demanding
  • Mill argues that we have few opportunities to benefit people ‘in general’
  • Friendship requires valuing the individual person and acting out of love for them
• Partiality examples:

  • Visiting a friend in the hospital can be rightly objected to if it isn’t personal
  • Rescuing one’s wife from drowning should not be seen as just a means to maximize happiness
  • Valuing friendship means valuing the friend as an individual and acting out of love for them
• Partiality criticism:

  • Utilitarianism is criticized for being false as it does not consider the importance of showing partiality
  • Replies to the criticism include the argument that morality is more demanding than we think and that partiality is central to happiness
• Moral integrity:

  • Involves acting according to your own values, especially in challenging situations
  • Utilitarianism may require setting aside moral integrity if it conflicts with maximizing happiness
  • Williams' case of George questions whether one should compromise their values for a job that conflicts with their beliefs
• Moral integrity criticism:

  • Williams argues against treating values and commitments as just preferences to be counted in the general happiness
  • Demanding that individuals set aside their values for utilitarian calculation can alienate them from their actions and attack their integrity
• Intentions:

  • Utilitarianism doesn’t recognize the moral value of intentions
  • Mill argues that intentions are not relevant to whether an action is right, but they are not morally irrelevant
  • Good intentions tend to produce morally right actions
• Intentions criticism:

  • Objections to Mill's view include the denial that intentions make a difference to whether an action is right
  • Examples like lying and releasing a genetically modified virus deliberately or accidentally question the moral implications of intentions
• Hedonist act utilitarianism states that an action is morally right if it maximizes happiness
• According to Bentham and Mill, happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain