Chapter 4 - The State of International Relations by 1900

• What policy did Britain follow?

  Splendid Isolation - remaining aloof from foreign affairs in Europe; it was viewed as splendid by the British ministers as it avoided disadvantageous agreements with other countries and emphasised the strength of the British Empire
• When, however, did Britain take a greater interest in European relations?


  When a risk was presented to the balance of power - this grew with the creation and development of the German Empire
• What were some sources of tension involving Britain?

  Anglo-Russian tension was well established, disputes over colonial possessions frequently threatened peaceful relations between Britain and the other powers in 1890, and the 1898 Fashoda Incident emphasised the increasing vulnerability of British dominance overseas
• What was Germany's plan for France?

  Bismarck wanted to isolate France diplomatically following the Franco-Prussian war, and this was successful way into the 1890s
• What were the French focuses?

  Germany's plan of diplomatic French isolation was successful as France were not concerned with foreign policy due to the distractions of the problems of the Third Republic. They also needed to ensure that France recovered economically from the Franco-Prussian conflict. However, at the end of the 19th century, France sought suitable allies, initially believing that Russia and Britain would each require guarantees of support against the other before they could enter into a formal agreement. Germany was even considered as a potential ally, especially as the immediate consequences of the Franco-Prussian war and the revanchism stirred by the Alsace-Lorraine takeover faded from French memory. However, a committed minority of politicians refused to countenance an understanding with Germany as it would entail a formal renunciation of France's claims to Alsace-Lorraine
• What was the Third Republic?

  The government established in France after the fall of Napoleon III in September 1870 while the Franco-Prussian war was still being fought. The Third Republic ended in 1940 following the Nazi invasion of France
• What is revanchism?

  Stems from the French word for "revenge" - a policy that aimed to overturn the losses to French territory incurred as a result of the Franco-Prussian war
• Why was there pessimism in the contemplation of an Anglo-French agreement?

  Britain and France had been imperial rivals for two centuries and their colonial ambitions had clashed in Canada, India and the African continent.
• Why was colonial rivalry with Britain over Egypt a huge concern in the idea of creating an Anglo-French alliance?

  It had been sparked by nationalist disorders in Egypt in 1882, and it prevented a French understanding with Britain for several years. The Suez Canal in Egypt, a project financed jointly by Britain and France, was completed in 1869, but was threatened in 1882 by a nationalist uprising. Britain was immediately concerned as the Suez Canal was strategically vital for commerce, and so they sent troops to invade and occupy Egypt in August, creating a high potential for actual conflict between France and Britain.
• Despite the rivalry, what evidence is there of France and Britain already having made peaceful agreements?

  June 1882 - Anglo-French Convention confirmed the territorial boundaries of each empire in West Africa

  
  

  Fashoda Incident - resulted in the formal agreement recognising the British and French spheres of influence in the north-east
• Why was the growth of Anglo-German rivalry unexpected?

  The royal families of the two powers were closely related, their cultures shared many similarities, and both were suspicious of France
• What had gradually worsened relations between Britain and Germany?


  Though Britain had viewed Russia and France as the greatest threats to its imperial superiority for much of the 19th century, the accession of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II and the departure of Bismarck and the demise of the Bismarckian system gradually worsened Anglo-German relations
• What was the Bismarckian system?

  Attempted to maintain the balance of power in Europe - Bismarck knew that other powers would view the unified Germany as a threat to the balance of power after 1871, so he stated that Germany had no further plans for European expansion. He developed a complex system of alliances called the "Bismarckian system" so it appeared that the European balance of power was being maintained while Germany was unchallenged in its economic developments. He also tried to keep France isolated from friendly alliances and to limit the potential for conflict between AH and Russia over the Balkans
• How was Germany a colonial rival for Britain?

  A rival during the "scramble for Africa", and though Bismarck wanted to avoid potential conflict with Britain in Europe, he was not so careful about overseas commercial interests, collaborating with the French in the 1880s against British interests in West Africa, the Congo and South West Africa.
• How were tense relations between Germany and Britain calmed in the late 19th Century?

  Two partition treaties were formed in 1885 and 1890 to resolve Anglo-German disputes in Zanzibar, with Germany creating a protectorate of German East Africa and Britain creating a protectorate of Zanzibar, calming relations between the powers
• Who was Bernhard von Bulow (1849-1929)?

  German Foreign Secretary for 3 years prior to becoming Chancellor in 1900. Spoke several languages, was a great debater, and was ruthless in his treatment of his rivals. Resigned in 1909 over a tax debate in the Reichstag, but remained in Wilhelm's favour
• What did the Germans become aware of in the 1890s?

  That they risked British hostility with the advent of Weltpolitik and the beginning of the Anglo-German naval race
• What, therefore, was Germany's goal?

  They sought an understanding with Britain which would secure a peaceful coexistence between the two powers while allowing Germany to still seek imperial greatness
• Who carried out the attaining of the German goal?

  Bernhard von Bulow - though he did so clumsily. He was the German FS, and was often complacent in his dealings with the British, hoping that the continued imperial rivalry with France would drive Britain into Germany's arms.
• What hope did the Fashoda Incident bring to the Germans?

  News of the Incident was welcomed by Bulow, who believed that Britain would abandon its Splendid Isolation and enter into an alliance with Germany, balancing out the threat of encirclement posed by the 1894 Franco-Russian Agreement. Given the long term nature of Anglo-French rivalry exacerbated by the Scramble for Africa, the Germans had reason to be optimistic, particularly as France had allied with Russia, Britain's other imperial rival
• How did Russia respond to the Dual Alliance between Germany and AH?

  The Dual Alliance was anti-Russian in nature, and so following a flare up of tension in the Balkans in the 1870s, Russia sought a renewal of the Dreikaiserbund (aka the Three Emperors' League) agreed between Germany, AH and Russia in 1873
• What ensured that the Dreikaiserbund could not continue?

  The aftermath of the 1885 revolt in Bulgaria - Russia forced the abdication of the Prince of Bulgaria and threatened to greatly increase its influence over the Balkan state, badly damaging relations between Russia and AH
• What did Bismarck do in 1887 despite the break down in relations between Russia and AH?


  He was determined not to allow Russia to remain potentially hostile to Germany, and so he arranged the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia
• What were the terms of the 1887 Reinsurance Treaty?

  - Russia should be allowed to be the prevailing influence in the Balkans

  
  

  - Both Germany and Russia would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third Great Power

  
  

  - The clause of neutrality would not apply if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked AH
• What was Kaiser Wilhelm II's view on the Reinsurance Treaty?

  The Kaiser disagreed with Bismarck's approach, strongly disapproving of limiting German and AH influence in the Balkans.
• What was required of Russia after Bismarck's resignation in 1890?

  Russian ministers needed to seek alliances elsewhere in order to take the potential threat of the Triple Alliance seriously as the Reinsurance Treaties with Germany were not renewed.
• What had Bismarck hoped for France since the 1870s?

  Wanted to keep France isolated on the idea that if France had no powerful allies, they would be unable to seek revenge for their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
• What forced the French Government to seek alliances with other powers?


  The popular mood of revanche and the formation of the Dual Alliance
• Why did France not ally with Britain?

  Britain had more common interests with Germany in the 1880s and 90s with its policy of Splendid Isolation, and Anglo-French imperial rivalry was very much alive and well
• Why was it surprising that Russia was France's choice of ally?

  On the surface, Russia and France had very little in common, particularly in terms of their political systems
• What brought France and Russia together?

  Growing mutual suspicion of Germany, continuing colonial disputes with Britain and financial deals - Russia needed foreign investment to develop its industry and France had money to give
• What did the Franco-Russian Alliance (the Dual Entente) pave the way for?


  For Russia to receive considerable French loans and gave France military security
• When was the Franco-Russian Alliance formalised?

  1894
• What were the terms of the 1894 Franco-Russian Alliance?

  1. If F attacked by G or Italy supported by G, R shall employ all available forces to attack G. If R attacked by G or AH supported by G, F shall employ all available forces to attack G

  
  

  2. In the case of the forces of the Triple Alliance, or of any of the Powers belonging to it, mobilising, F and R shall mobilise immediately and simultaneously the whole of their forces

  
  

  3. The available forces to be employed against G shall engage to the full with such speed that G will have to fight simultaneously on the East and the West

  
  

  4. The General Staffs of the Armies of the two countries shall co-op with each other at all times in prep and facilitation of the execution of the measures mentioned above

  
  

  5. F and R shall not conclude peace separately

  
  

  6. The present Convention shall have the same duration as the Triple Alliance

  
  

  7. All the clauses enumerated above shall be kept absolutely secret
• What is meant by the term "mobilise"?

  To move soldiers and military equipment to the front line in preparation for war
• What is meant by the title "chiefs of staff"?

  High ranking army officials responsible for military planning and tactics
• What is interesting about the terms of the Franco-Russian Alliance?

  They showed that both France and Russia were very aware of Germany's fear of encirclement by hostile powers as the Triple Alliance had not remained secret as was intended, however, the opposing alliances did not know the full terms of the opposite agreement, allowing for room for suspicion and necessity for army chiefs of staff to prepare for the worst
• What had happened in 1866 under the chancellorship of Bismarck?

  Prussia had gone to war against AH as part of the German Wars of Unification as Bismarck saw the Habsburg Empire as decaying and did not want to tie the newly unified Germany to it
• What helped to bring about a change of German policy towards AH?

  Concerns over the aftermath of the Ottoman Empire's decline
• What were German relations with Russia like by 1878 and why?

  Relations were particularly strained - at the Congress of Berlin 1878, Bismarck had been one of the most vocal opponents of Russian ambitions in the Balkan region, prompting a complaint from Tsar Alexander II to the Kaiser