Socialisation

• Sociobiological perspective argues that gender norms are partly biologically-determined, with the mother-role being seen as a biological necessity influencing the development of many gender norms
• Interactionists like George Herbert Mead believe in an active role for individuals in the socialisation process, where socialisation is not something done to people but a process in which the individual is an active participant
• Mead suggests that in primary socialisation, individuals initially imitate others, then start to role play, and later develop roles for themselves, learning to understand symbols (like language) and empathize to take on the role of the other
• Erving Goffman's dramaturgical approach views everyday social life as playing parts on a "stage," where socialisation is about learning roles and how to play them, including resocialisation to tear down and rebuild an individual's role and sense of self in a deliberate way
• Postmodernists argue that socialisation is not about one national culture but many, with a diverse process where individuals are socialised into various cultures and roles, able to choose and swap, resisting traditional socialisation methods
• Feminists note how primary socialisation creates gender roles through manipulation, different activities, verbal appellations, and canalisation, with gender socialisation continuing into secondary socialisation influenced by mass media
• Marxists view socialisation as a tool used by the ruling class to control the working-class majority, transmitting bourgeois ideology through key institutions like education, religion, family, media, and the legal system
• Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of hegemony, where the ruling class establishes a common sense and a value consensus, convincing most people that the current system is normal and is common sense
• Hegemony is similar to a value consensus, where people mostly accept the values transmitted by institutions
• The ruling class rarely needs to use the repressive state apparatus to prevent revolution because people effectively control themselves by accepting bourgeois hegemony
• For Marx, false class consciousness leads workers to wrongly believe that the system is right and fail to fight against it
• Bowles and Gintis focused on the hidden curriculum, suggesting that schools train pupils to become passive, docile workers who will accept a life of exploitation
• Paul Willis studied "the lads" who formed an anti-school subculture, preparing them for future roles as members of the proletariat
• Feminists also recognize socialization promoting norms and values that maintain social order, with patriarchy being the preserved order
• Functionalists view the hidden curriculum positively, as it teaches norms and values that enable society to function properly
• Conflict theorists criticize functionalism for viewing socialization as a consensus theory, arguing that broad agreement on norms and values is not necessarily positive for a fair society
• Action theorists reject functionalism as a structural theory, emphasizing the role of the individual in developing their own values and behaviors
• Sociobiologists debate the nature/nurture influence on human behavior, questioning how many norms or values might be considered universal
• Formal social control refers to written rules and laws enforced by agents with the power to punish individuals, like the police and courts
• Informal social control involves rules enforced by agents who can control behavior without legal action, such as parents and teachers
• Negative sanctions are punishments for breaking norms, while positive sanctions are rewards for conforming to expected behavior
• Robert Merton introduced anticipatory socialization, where individuals adopt norms and values of a group or situation before actually being in it
• Robert Merton developed the idea of anticipatory socialisation, where an individual adopts the norms and values of a group or situation before actually becoming part of that group
• Example of anticipatory socialisation: an expectant parent preparing emotionally and practically for the role before the child is born
• Example of anticipatory socialisation: people adopting the norms and values of their managers to improve their chances of securing a promotion
• Education is an agent of secondary socialisation according to functionalists
• Children start school having learned the norms and values of their family and community through primary socialisation
• At school, children start to learn the universal values of society as a whole through secondary socialisation
• Talcott Parsons argues that secondary socialisation is one of the main functions of education in contemporary society, along with meritocratic role allocation
• Secondary socialisation occurs through the formal curriculum and the informal curriculum, or hidden curriculum
• In the UK, the formal curriculum is set centrally and is known as the National Curriculum
• The National Curriculum includes core subjects like English, Maths, and Science, ensuring children in different schools study the same subjects to similar standards
• Socialisation happens through various agents like parents, teachers, peers, media, religion, and the government
• Secondary socialisation continues throughout life as individuals learn new things and adapt behaviors to different places and over time
• Functionalist perspective views socialisation as a process through which a value consensus is reached, promoting solidarity and stability in society
• Durkheim's organic analogy compares society to a living organism, where all institutions are interconnected, impacting each other's functions
• Anomie, according to Durkheim, is a condition of instability resulting from a breakdown of norms and values, leading to a lack of purpose or social ideals
• Social control plays a part in maintaining social order through both formal and informal means
• Socialisation is the process of learning acceptable norms and values for a particular society, acquiring a personal identity and social skills required for life situations
• Primary socialisation, according to Talcott Parsons, occurs between birth and around 3 or 4 years old, where children learn basic norms, behaviors, and values mainly from parents