into cells

• Organelles with solid structures : r ibosomes, c entrioles, n ucleolus,
• Organelles with single membrane-bound structures: v esicles, v acuoles, r ough ER, s mooth ER, g olgi a pparatus, l ysosomes
• Organelles with double membrane-bound structures: n ucleus, m itochondria, c hloroplast
• Staining cells highlight the outlines of cells and can visualize metabolic processes. Furthermore, it can compare alive and dead cells- different dyes needing to be used for both
• Prokaryotic organelles have c ell w all, c apsule, p lasma m embrane, p ilia, f lagella/c illia, c ytoplasm, n ucleoid, p lasmid D NA, r ibosomes 70s
• The cytoplasm is where most of the cell's chemical reactions take place. It gives the cell shape, holds and protects organelles in place and from damage, and composes the cell's interior environment. It's made out of water, salts, and other organic molecules that form a gelatinous liquid.
• The cell membrane is s emi- p ermeable and controls e ntrances and e xits within the cell. It has hydrophillic heads, each with two hydrophobic tails facing each other head's tails. There are c holesterol particles between them for s pacing control and t emperature changes, and then protein channels or pumps are added throughout for additional passage. P eripheral p roteins extend out, attaching to the top of the hydrophilic heads or on top of i ntergral p roteins that embed themselves within the membrane. Glycolipids attach to the phospholipid heads and glycoproteins attach to proteins.
• Free ribosomes: creates/synthesizes proteins for the nucleus and other intracellular organelles
• ER-bound ribosomes: creates/synthesizes proteins for the golgi apparatus to pack and sort and finally to be sent out of the cell
• Liposomes: A

  Micelles: B

  Bilayer: C

  
• A liposome is a spherical vesicle composed of one or more concentric bilayers of phospholipids.
• A micelle is an aggregate of amphiphilic molecules (such as fatty acids or detergents) dispersed in a solvent such as water; it consists of a core of nonpolar groups surrounded by polar groups oriented toward the surface of the solution.
• The mitochondria generates the most chemical energy needed to power the cell's reactions through the Kreb's cycle and the electron transport chain that use it as a site for cellular respiration. It also stores this energy afterwords.
• The Golgi Apparatus modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids within the cell. The Golgi Apparatus receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum that fuse with the membrane of its cis face and adds carbohydrates to them. These modified proteins are then sorted and packed into membrane bound vesicles which will eventually fuse with lysosomes or plasma membranes. They are excreted through the trans face
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is composed of tubules and connected to the nuclear membrane and the rough ER. It's job is to synthesize l ipids, p hospholipids, s teroids, and h ormones that are often found in the testis, ovaries, and skin oil glands
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the nuclear envolope and smooth ER. It's exterior is cisternae, interior = cisternae space. It produces, folds, checks quality of, and dispatches some proteins.
• The nucleus is the cell's gnome storage and site of DNA replication and RNA processing. It also produces and excretes ribosomes for the cell. Substances enter through the nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope

  
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the nuclear envolope and smooth ER. It's exterior is cisternae, interior = cisternae space. It produces, folds, checks quality of, and dispatches some proteins.

  
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is composed of tubules and connected to the nuclear membrane and the rough ER. It's job is to synthesize l ipids, p hospholipids, s teroids, and h ormones that are often found in the testis, ovaries, and skin oil glands

  
• The Golgi Apparatus modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids within the cell. The Golgi Apparatus receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum that fuse with the membrane of its cis face and adds carbohydrates to them. These modified proteins are then sorted and packed into membrane bound vesicles which will eventually fuse with lysosomes or plasma membranes. They are excreted through the trans face

  
• The mitochondria generates the most chemical energy needed to power the cell's reactions through the Kreb's cycle and the electron transport chain that use it as a site for cellular respiration. It also stores this energy afterwords.

  
• How does the nucleus and ribosomes in the cell work together?

  Protein synthesis

  
• Stem cell transpcription factors are proteins that decide which segment of DNA code to be transcribed and expressed in each stem cell (cause of differentiation)
• Temperature change, external signaling from other differentiated cells can be examples of external cues for stem cell differentiation
• Location-based differentiation (based on factors the stem cell is exposed to) and transcription factors in cytoplasm of zygote are examples of internal cues to differentiation
• Stem cell developments

  
• What is compartmentalization?

  Infolding/endosymbiosis of membranes causing them to separate structures from the rest of the cell
• What are the benefits of compartmentalization?

  Allows cell to provide different and ideal conditions for each of the cell's organelles to function in; allows pH control, protein dense membranes, containing of damage/infections within one compartment and holds more concentrated and effective reactions
• Examples of compartmentalization include; Lysosome: high concentration of enzymes with higher pH than cytoplasm- helps with hydrolyzing biological polymers, is at enzymes' optimal pH

  Phagocytic vacuole: plasma membrane used to engulf large particles giving rise to new compartments
• Photoautotrophic archea: Uses photosynthesis (with pigments other than chlorophyll) with light activated ion pumps to generate ATP (but not oxygen) instead of an electron transport pump.
• Chemoautrophic archea: Uses inorganic energy sources like iron- similar to the oldest forms of energy acquisition done by LUCA. Process = obligate anaerobe --> "methanogens"
• Prokaryotes: u nicellular, little c ellular structures with n ucleoid, DNA is d ouble h elix coiled to form c hromosomes but n aked, floating freely in c ytoplasm of the cell
• Eukaryotes: m ulti-cellular, multiple c ellular structures that differ between p lant, a nimal, and f ungal cells, with n ucleus. DNA is in d ouble h elix structure coiled to form c hromosomes and wrapped around h istone p roteins, encapsulated in n uclear m embrane
• Fungal cells have a n ucleus, f ree r ibosomes, s ER and r ER, G olgi a pparatus, l ysosomes, c ytoskeleton, m itochondria, and a C HINTIN c ell w all. It is a saprotroph meaning it breaks down material in its environment to absorb nutrients. It has large, permanent vacuoles for water balance
• Plant cells have a n ucleus, f ree r ibosomes, s ER and r ER, G olgi a pparatus, v esicles, l ysosomes, c ytoskeleton, c hloroplast, m itochondria, C ELLULOSE c ell w all. It is a autotroph, meaning it uses energy from the sun to produce their own food. Plastids store starch, and vacuoles are large and permanent for water balance and turgor pressure. Centrioles and cilia/flagellas are only found in male mosses and ferns
• Animal cells have a n ucleus, f ree r ibosomes, s ER and r Er, G olgi a pparatus, v esicles, l ysosomes, c ytoskeleton, m itochondria, and a m embrane but no c ell w all.

  It is holozonic, meaning it eats organisms with internal nutrients.

  They have centrioles for arranging mitotic spindles for cell divisions, and small temporary vacuoles for excreting and separating waste.
• Cytoskeletons are made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin fibres. Microtubules are hollow tubes used for movement within the cell. Intermediate filaments are thicker than microtubules and hold the cell together. Actin fibres are thin threads that move things inside the cell.
• Cell walls are made up of polymers of sugars called glycosides. They give shape and support to the cell. Plant cells have cellulose while bacteria have peptidoglycan or teichoic acid. Fungi have chitin.
• Two important organisms: Chlamydomonas (eukaryotic) and Paramecium (prokaryotic)
• Paramecium is a single-celled protozoan that feeds on bacteria. It has four long hairlike structures called cilia that sweep around the mouth opening to catch prey. It also has a contractile vacuole like Chlamydomonas. It reproduces sexually by conjugation where two individuals exchange genetic information then separate again. This allows them to adapt quickly to changing environments.