The brain and neuropsychology

• The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as perception, memory, language, and consciousness.
• The thalamus acts as a relay station between sensory input from the body and the cerebral cortex.
• The neural connections and pathways in the brain can strengthen or weaken over time based on use.
• : Neural plasticity refers to the brain's ability to adapt and change based on new experiences, thoughts, behaviors, or environmental stimuli.
• Brain imaging techniques like MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) allow us to visualize different parts of the brain at work.
• PET scans work by monitoring a small amount of radioactive chemical in the blood supply to highlight active brain cells, brain pathways, specific areas of activity, and blockages in blood flow around the brain
• CT scans map the brain by taking X-ray 'slices' and combining them to build up a full image, showing denser tissues like bone and nerve cell bodies
• fMRI scans work by detecting tiny magnetic field changes in brain cells to show brain activity and cognition, without the use of X-Rays or radioactive substances
• Cognitive neuroscience aims to understand the relationship between the brain, cognitive processes, and behavior, while scanning methods help explore brain activity in living people
• In the brain, specialized areas like Broca's area in the frontal lobe deal with speech production, while Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe is responsible for understanding speech
• The motor area controls deliberate movement using motor neurons to send messages to muscles, with more active body parts having a larger share of the motor cortex
• The somatosensory area controls sensory feelings, particularly touch, with more sensitive areas involving a larger amount of the somatosensory cortex
• The visual area in the occipital lobe receives information from both eyes through optic nerves and controls vision
• The visual cortex is involved in how we learn and organize information and is responsible for emotions
• The visual cortex processes visual information such as color, shape, and distance
• Injury or damage to the visual cortex can cause vision impairments such as blindness
• The cerebellum, a wrinkled structure found at the back of the brain, controls balance and coordination, which are automatic activities we have no conscious control over
• As we practice skills like running and walking, the cerebellum controls these actions so they become smoother and more automatic
• Hebb's theory states that when we learn to do or remember certain things, we are developing stronger cell assemblies, and the more we use them, the better we learn and hold onto the information in that neural pathway
• According to Hebb, the brain is plastic, meaning it can adapt, change structure, and form new connections as we learn
• Evaluation of Hebb's theory of learning and neuronal growth:

  • Hebb explained cognitive processes in terms of brain function, raising psychology's status as a science
  • His work led to changes in psychology, such as the development of cognitive neuroscience
  • He showed it is possible to study learning through looking at processes in the brain
• Neurons communicate with each other through synaptic transmission:

  • An electrical impulse reaches the end of the axon
  • Vesicles in the synaptic knobs release neurotransmitters into the synapse
  • Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the next neuron
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters make the receiving neuron more likely to fire an impulse
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters make the receiving neuron less likely to fire an impulse
  • Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the synaptic knob through reuptake
• The James-Lange Theory of Emotion:

  • Event activates the sympathetic division of the ANS
  • Release of adrenaline creates physiological arousal
  • The brain interprets these changes as emotion
• The Autonomic Nervous System:

  • Helps us react quickly and strongly in an emergency
  • Controls breathing and digestion
  • Main link between the brain and endocrine system
• Major Endocrine Glands:

  • Pituitary gland
  • Thyroid gland
  • Adrenal gland
  • Pineal gland
  • Thymus
  • Pancreas
• Fight or flight response is an automatic reaction to threat, stimulated by the ANS and maintained by the endocrine system
• The somatic nervous system senses our skin and allows us to feel and move
• The autonomic nervous system coordinates physiological functioning and responds to stressful or emotional events
• The nervous system is a complex network of nerve fibers and nerve cells that passes information around the body
• The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord, coordinating incoming sensory information and making decisions about movement and other activities
• The central nervous system does thinking, memory, decision making, and language processing
• The autonomic nervous system acts more slowly than the somatic nervous system because it deals with internal organs and emotional responses
• The autonomic nervous system acts more slowly because it deals with mood and feelings
• The autonomic nervous system is a network of nerves that takes information to and from the CNS, dealing with mood and feelings
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals across synapses, allowing neurons to communicate with one another.