BIOLOGY

• The Big Bang Theory suggests the origin of the universe occurred around 15 billion years ago
• Earth's origin dates back 4.6 billion years ago from gases, forming our atmosphere
• Life's origin likely began with cells resembling anaerobic bacteria
• Endosymbiotic Theory proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from prokaryotic organisms
• Lamarck's theory of evolution emphasized that evolution results from the use and disuse of physical features, with traits passed on to offspring
• Malthus predicted that human population would increase faster than food supply and living space, influencing Darwin's theory of evolution
• Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection states that individuals with traits better suited to an environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
• Genetic Variation within a species is caused by mutations, sexual reproduction, and crossing-over during meiosis
• Competition between organisms for scarce resources is a key aspect of evolution
• Evolution can be described as "Descent with Modification," where organisms respond to their environment, undergo changes, and increase their chances of survival
• The fossil record, body structures, embryology, and biochemistry provide evidence of evolution
• Adaptive Radiation, Convergent Evolution, Divergent Evolution, and Coevolution are patterns of evolution
• Punctuated Equilibrium and Gradualism are two models of evolutionary change
• A Cladogram depicts how organisms are related by showing evolutionary lines evolving and branching off from common ancestors over time
• The Big Bang Theory suggests the origin of the universe occurred around 15 billion years ago
• Earth's origin dates back to approximately 4.6 billion years ago, emerging from gases that formed our atmosphere
• The first cells likely resembled anaerobic bacteria, and the Endosymbiotic Theory proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from prokaryotic organisms
• Lamarck's theory of evolution emphasized that evolution results from the use and disuse of physical features, with traits being passed on to offspring
• Malthus's theory, applied to all species, stated that population growth would outpace food supply and living space, influencing Darwin's theory of evolution
• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, shaped by his observations during his voyage (e.g., Galapagos Islands finches), introduced the concept of natural selection - "survival of the fittest"
• Darwin's theory incorporates genetic variation, competition for resources, and the requirement for adaptation for survival
• Natural selection causes changes in a population over time, leading to the frequency of alleles increasing or decreasing
• Isolation of a population can lead to speciation, whether geographic, reproductive, or behavioral
• The fossil record, although incomplete, provides strong evidence of evolution through fossil evidence, radioactive dating, and interpreting fossils
• Body structures like homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures, along with embryology and biochemistry comparisons, offer evidence of evolution
• Patterns of evolution include adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, divergent evolution, coevolution, and punctuated equilibrium/gradualism
• A cladogram depicts how organisms are related by showing evolutionary lines branching off from common ancestors over time
• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:

  • Darwin's theory states that individuals with traits better suited to an environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their traits (survival of the fittest)
  • Genetic Variation: differences exist within a species caused by mutations, sexual reproduction, and crossing-over during meiosis
  • Competition: organisms compete for scarce resources, leading to the production of more offspring than the environment can support
  • Adaptation: organisms respond to their environment, undergo changes, and increase their chances of survival
  • Evolution can be thought of as "Descent with Modification," where organisms change over time

  
• Publication of Darwin's work in 1859: "The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection"
• Evidence of Evolution:

  • Fossil Record: preserved remains of organisms, interpreted by paleontologists and geologists to explain Earth's history
  • Homologous structures: different organisms have body parts with similar structure but different function, suggesting a common ancestry
  • Analogous structures: different organisms have body parts with a similar function but not structure
  • Vestigial Structures: body parts reduced in size and appear to have no function
• Patterns of Evolution:

  • Adaptive Radiation: different species evolve from one ancestral species, each with a different niche
  • Convergent Evolution: natural selection produces similar adaptations in different organisms in response to similar environments
  • Divergent Evolution: two species gradually become increasingly different, linked to one species having a new habitat
  • Coevolution: species that interact closely often adapt to one another
  • Punctuated Equilibrium/Gradualism: punctuated equilibrium involves rapid change over a short period with periods of no change, while gradualism involves slow change over a long period
• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution:

  • Darwin's work shaped the modern theory of evolution
  • He sailed around the world studying different organisms, like the finches on the Galapagos Islands
  • Combined his observations with Malthus' ideas, leading to the concept of natural selection
  • Natural selection: individuals with traits better suited to the environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
  • Three key aspects of natural selection: genetic variation, competition, and adaptation

  
• Darwin's publication in 1859: "The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection"
• Evidence of evolution:

  • Fossil record: preserved remains of organisms, used for dating with radioactive isotopes
  • Homologous structures: different organisms have body parts with similar structure but different function
  • Analogous structures: different organisms have body parts with a similar function but not structure
  • Vestigial structures: body parts reduced in size and appear to have no function
• Patterns of evolution:

  • Adaptive radiation: different species evolve from one ancestral species, each with a different niche
  • Convergent evolution: natural selection produces similar adaptations in different organisms in response to similar environments
  • Divergent evolution: two species gradually become increasingly different, linked to one species having a new habitat
  • Coevolution: species that interact closely often adapt to one another
• Charles Darwin's study of the Galapagos Islands in 1835 included mapping the route he took, showing the names of the islands, landmarks like Tower Hill and James Bay, and the prevailing winds and currents that influenced his theory of evolution by natural selection

  
• Charles Darwin's 1859 book "On the Origin of Species" introduced the concept of natural selection, where individuals with traits better suited to the environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their traits

  
• Fossil evidence supports evolution, with fossils being preserved remains of organisms that form imprints or molds in rock and mud, and radioactive dating used to determine their age

  
• Homo neanderthalensis, a species of hominin that lived in Eurasia from roughly 230,000 to 40,000 years ago, is an example of human evolution

  
• Theories of Evolution:

  • Lamarck proposed that evolution results from the use and disuse of physical features, passing traits to offspring, though his ideas were proven wrong
  • Malthus stated that human population would increase faster than food supply, influencing Darwin's theory
  • Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection suggests that individuals with traits better suited to the environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their traits