patho wk 5

• Seizures are brief episodes of abnormal activity in the brain
• Convulsions are more severe seizures of spasmodic contractions of any and all muscles
• To diagnose seizures, you can use:

  • EEG
  • Skull radiography
  • CAT scan
  • MRI
• There are two types of seizure disorder categories: Generalized and Partial
• Generalized seizure includes types like Atonic, Myoclonic, Tonic-Clonic, and Absence seizures
• Generalized seizures affect the whole brain
• Absence seizures are characterized by a blank stare, no convulsion, inattentiveness, brief loss in awareness, and repetitive spasmodic eye blinks lasting for 30 seconds
• Absence seizures mainly occur in children and typically resolve by the age of 14
• Tonic-Clonic seizures are characterized by muscle stiffness, jerking, twitching, convulsions, crying or groaning, and can stop breathing, leading to falling due to loss of consciousness and muscle stiffness
• In the Tonic phase of a Tonic-Clonic seizure, the body stiffens, leading to the Clonic phase characterized by rapid synchronous jerking movements, followed by regaining partial consciousness and entering a deep sleep called the postictal phase
• Myoclonic seizures are characterized by sudden jerking or twitching of a body part, with no loss of consciousness and involving involuntary movements
• Atonic seizures, also known as "drop seizures," are due to loss of muscle tone, leading to temporary alterations in seizure activity, mainly seen in children and lasting around 15 seconds
• Partial seizures include types like Simple and Complex partial seizures
• Simple partial seizures show no impaired consciousness, deal with only one part of the brain, and can involve sensory, motor, psychic, or autonomic symptoms, with the person being aware during the seizure
• The cause of epilepsy can be idiopathic or due to brain tumors or abscesses, with febrile seizures occurring in children with high fevers
• Aura (warning) is a warning someone gets before a seizure, characterized as a warning of an impending seizure, followed by a state of loss of consciousness and motor control
• Status epilepticus is a continuous series of seizures without periods of recovery in between, considered dangerous
• Treatment for seizures includes drugs like Carbamazepine (Tegretol), Valproic acid (Depakene), and Phenytoin (Dilantin), which work by keeping Na+ channels closed for longer periods to decrease neuron firing at higher frequencies
• Carbamazepine (Tegretol) and Valproic acid (Depakene) can cause ataxia (loss of ability to coordinate muscle movements) and nystagmus (rapid involuntary eyeball movements)
• Phenytoin (Dilantin) can cause gingival hyperplasia (excessive growth of gum tissue)
• Valproic acid (Depakene) can treat all seizures and has multiple mechanisms of action, including blocking Na+ influx, suppressing Ca+ influx, and enhancing GABA influence, but it is hepatotoxic and contraindicated in pregnant women
• For atonic (drop) seizures, antiepileptic drugs do not work, and a high-fat, low-carb diet is recommended, along with vagal nerve stimulation
• For tonic-clonic seizures, the same drugs given for simple partial or complex seizures are used, including Carbamazepine (Tegretol), Valproic acid (Depakene), and Phenytoin (Dilantin)
• Phenytoin (Dilantin) is a long-term control drug that can take up to 5 minutes to work and is not the first choice for seizures
• Parkinson's disease is usually seen in individuals aged 50-80 and is characterized by resting tremors, bradykinesia (slow speech and movement)
• Phenytoin (Dilantin) is a long-term control drug for seizures that can take up to 5 minutes to work, making it not the first choice for seizures
• Parkinson's disease is usually seen in individuals aged 50-80 and is characterized by resting tremors, bradykinesia leading to slow speech and movement, and akinesia resulting in a loss of motor control
• If Parkinson's disease has an early onset, it is usually due to a gene mutation, and there is no underlying cause for the majority of cases
• In Parkinson's disease, there is an imbalance between dopamine and acetylcholine, with more acetylcholine than dopamine, leading to abnormal movement
• Treatment for Parkinson's disease involves using drugs with central anticholinergics to block acetylcholine receptors, increasing dopamine levels; drugs like Amantadine (Symmetrel) and Benztropine (Cogentin) release dopamine or act as dopaminergic agonists
• Levodopa (L-Dopa) is the gold standard drug in Parkinson's disease treatment, increasing dopamine levels in the brain by being converted from levodopa by decarboxylase; it is metabolized in the periphery and excreted by the kidneys
• Stroke, also known as a Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA), can be ischemic (due to severe blockage of blood flow to the brain) or hemorrhagic (when blood vessels rupture), leading to blood spillage in the surrounding tissues
• Ischemic strokes affect 85% of individuals and are treated with thrombolytic therapy; hemorrhagic strokes can cause uncontrolled hypertension and are characterized by severe headaches
• Prevention medications for strokes include antiplatelets like aspirin and anticoagulants like warfarin before a stroke, and thrombolytic therapy after a stroke; life after a stroke involves rehabilitation, speech therapy, physical therapy, and talk therapy
• The signs of a stroke can be remembered by the acronym FAST: Facial drooping, Arms dropping (one-sided weakness), Slurred speech, and Time is of the essence (3-hour window for best care)
• The cerebrum consists of the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, brain stem, and cerebellum, each responsible for different functions like thinking, memory, behavior, movement, sight, language, touch, balance, coordination, hearing, learning, feelings, breathing, heart rate, and temperature